正本清源
虽然衍生品至今依然没有一个统一的定义,但是不同的人对衍生品本质的描述则基本上是一致的。
“寄生”的价值
衍生品的英文是“derivative”,来自法语中的dérivatif,作为形容词是指派生的或衍生的,作为名词就是派生物或衍生物。作为一个金融词汇,derivative是指其价值依赖于或派生自其他东西的金融工具。“衍生品”和“金融衍生品”(financialderivatives) 并不存在本质上的区别,只是带有“金融”两字的衍生品的基础变量大多与金融资产有关,例如利率变化和股价变化等。
有不少人都曾给衍生品下过定义,我们不妨试举几例来看一下。2006年出版的Management ofBanking一书给衍生品下的定义是:[1]
The term derivative in financial markets refers toany instrument or contract that derives its value from anotherunderlying asset, instrument, or contract.
上述定义比较简单,只是指出了衍生品的价值来自于其他资产这一基本特征。2009年出版的Options, Futures, and OtherDerivatives一书中的衍生品定义则比较具体一些:[2]
A derivative can be defined as a financialinstrument whose value depends on (or derives from) the values ofother, more basic, underlying variables. Very often the variableunderlying derivatives are the prices of traded assets. A stockoption, for example, is a derivative whose value is dependent onthe price of a stock. However, derivatives can be dependent onalmost any variable, from the price of hogs to the amount of snowfalling at a certain ski resort.
上述定义强调了衍生品的本质,即衍生品与一种变量之间的关系。这一定义揭示了衍生品交易的不确定性特征,即衍生品交易本身的成功与否完全取决于未来的一种不确定的可变因素。只要存在可变性且其变化趋向不确定,我们就可以创造出可供交易的衍生品。一个最简单的例子是:甲与乙约定,一个飞过头顶的小鸟拉屎的话,甲向乙支付10美元;不拉屎的话,则由乙向甲支付10美元。
一个官方的定义
国际上专门负责对银行实施监管的巴塞尔委员会 (Basel Committee onBanking Supervision) 也曾于1994年给衍生品下过如下定义:[3]
Broadly defined, a derivatives instrument is afinancial contract whose value depends on the values of one or moreunderlying assets or indexes. Derivatives transactions include awide assortment of financial contracts, including forwards,futures, swaps and options. In addition, other traded instrumentsincorporate derivatives characteristics, such as those withimbedded options. While some derivatives instruments may have verycomplex structures, all of them can be divided into the basicbuilding blocks of options, forward contracts or some combinationthereof.
作为一个政府间组织,巴塞尔委员会很难对衍生品或任何类似东西作出有明显好恶倾向性的定义。但是上述定义说出了衍生品的搭积木的特征,即几乎所有的衍生品可以通过各种组合而产生新的衍生品。
定时炸弹的比喻
WarrenE Buffett对衍生品的表述比较直截了当,他把衍生品看作是定时炸弹。他认为衍生品不仅对从事衍生品交易的人来说是一颗定时炸弹,对经济体系同样具有定时炸弹的作用。在BerkshireHathaway公司2002年的年报里,Buffett是这样说的:[4]
… We view them as time bombs, both for the partiesthat deal in them and the economic system…. Unless derivativescontracts are collateralized or guaranteed, their ultimate valuealso depends on the creditworthiness of the counterparties to them.In the meantime, though, before a contract is settled, thecounterparties record profits and losses – often huge in amount –in their current earnings statements without so much as a pennychanging hands. The range of derivatives contracts is limited onlyby the imagination of man (or sometimes, so it seems, madmen). AtEnron, for example, newsprint and broadband derivatives, due to besettled many years in the future, were put on the books. Or say youwant to write a contract speculating on the number of twins to beborn in Nebraska in 2020. No problem – at a price, you will easilyfind an obliging counterparty.
有意思的是,Buffett把始终披着高端、复杂和专业外衣的衍生品与疯子挂上了钩,成为了疯子的把戏。这不由自主地让我们想起了“人有多大胆,地有多大产”的中国名句。
“社会价值”的追问
衍生品的发明及其交易的进行始终披着超人智商的外套,定理、模型以及效应等莫名其妙的名称让普罗大众深信社会已经进入了通过一个数学公式可以解决人生烦恼的年代了。甚至还有人突发奇想,认为金融创新有利于一国贫困的减少。[5]虽有胆量提出疯狂的观点,未必有能力证明疯狂的合理性。现实告诉我们,衍生品交易给一些人带来了财富,给另一些人送去了眼泪,甚至还把一些才拖进了监狱。天地良心,衍生品交易并没有给社会创造任何价值,我们的社会并没有因为衍生品的交易而增加任何财富。如果衍生品交易可以使一部分人先富起来的话,开赌同样可以实现这一目标。
家族成员
上文提及的巴塞尔委员会给衍生品下的定义还提及了衍生品的种类,包括远期合同、期货合同、期权以及掉期等。下文是对这些衍生品家族成员的特征进行简单的介绍。
远期合同
远期合同 (forward contract)是指以特定的价格在未来特定时间买卖资产的合同。买卖标的物的数量和价格在远期合同订立之时都已确定,只是合同的履行发生在约定的将来。在约定的履行期到来时,无论当时的市场价格如何,合同双方需按合同约定的价格履行。美联储的远期合同定义是:[6]
Forwards are over-the-counter (OTC) contracts inwhich a buyer agrees to purchase from a seller a specified productat a specified price for delivery at a specified futuretime.
按照巴塞尔委员会的定义,衍生品包括远期合同。但不难看出,远期合同是一个约定在将来履行的合同而已,似乎并不具备衍生品的基本特征,例如我们很难说远期合同本身的价值依赖于或派生自与远期交易没有必然联系的其他变量。而且,无论是远期合同还是期货合同的出现都远早于“衍生品”这一用词的出现。
期货合同
期货合同 (futures contract)是指在交易所进行交易的远期合同,其主要特征是合同标准化,即有特定的交易数量、价格以及交割日期。期货交易虽然有明确的标的,但进行期货交易的人一般都不是为了实物交割而进行交易的,这是期货交易的一个比较明显的特征。美联储没有给期货合同下定义,而是给金融期货(financial futures) 下了如下定义:[7]
Futures contracts are exchange-traded agreementsfor delivery of a specified amount and quality of a particularproduct at a specified price on a specified date. Futures contractsare essentially exchange-traded forward contracts with standardizedterms. Futures exchanges establish standardized terms for futurescontracts so that buyers and sellers only have to agree onprice.
期货合同和远期合同在本质上是相同的,其不同处主要是:一,合同是否标准化。虽然远期合同交易的一个优点是交易各方可以按照各自的特定需求设计交易,但交易是否成功在很大程度上取决于一方对另一方提出的交易条件是否有兴趣;二,交易是否受监管。远期合同属于场外交易,因此基本不受严格的管制,而期货合同是场内交易,因此受交易所规则的管制;三,合同是否履行。远期合同往往是以履行为目的而订立的合同,但期货合同在实践中很少有真正履行的;四,远期合同的信用风险比较大,而期货合同交易中一般不存在信用风险。
期权合同
期权 (option) 实际上是一个买卖合同,一个以权利作为标的的买卖合同。“Option”本来是指一项可以作出选择的权利。期权合同其实就是赋予合同买方以在未来的特定时间或特定期限内作出买入或卖出金融资产选择的权利。美联储的定义是:[8]
Options transfer the right but not the obligationto buy or sell an underlying asset, instrument, or index on orbefore the option’s exercise date at a specified price (the strikeprice). A call option gives the option purchaser the right but notthe obligation to purchase a specific quantity of the underlyingasset (from the call option seller) on or before the option’sexercise date at the strike price. Conversely, a put option givesthe option purchaser the right but not the obligation to sell aspecific quantity of the underlying asset (to the put optionseller) on or before the option’s exercise date at the strikeprice.
通过期权合同转让的是一种购买或者出售约定资产的权利,而不是义务。因此,在期权合同约定的时间到来时,权利人有权决定是否行使购买或者出售约定资产的权利。权利人是否行使权利取决于到时的市场变化,从这个意义上可以说期权合同的价值取决于未来不确定因素,因而符合衍生品的要件。
与远期合同相比,期权的明显特征是持有期权的人只有作出是否行使期权的权利,而没有行使期权的义务。在市场发生了对自己不利的变化时,期权持有人可以放弃行使期权的权利。但远期合同规定了合同双方的权利和义务,负有履行义务的一方并不能因为市场发生了对自己不利的变化而拒绝履行期货合同。远期合同的双方平等承担合同义务,都面临市场风险。但期权合同的卖方所承担的风险往往要大于买方所承担的风险。当期权买方决定行使期权的时候也就是成交会给他带来利润的时候,这种市场情形通常也是期权卖方不愿意成交的时候。而双方约定的期权的价格正是对期权卖方承担这一风险的一种补偿。
掉期合同
掉期 (swap) 是指约定双方在一定时间内交换现金流的合同。“Swap”一字的基本含义是“交换”或“互换”的意思。美联储没有给掉期下定义,而是分别给利率掉期和货币掉期下了定义,其中利率掉期的定义是:[9]
Interest-rate swaps are over-the-counter (OTC)derivative contracts in which two parties agree to exchangeinterest cash flows or one or more notional principal amounts atcertain times in the future according to an agreed-on formula. Thecash flows may be in the same currency or a different currency. Theformula defines the cash flows using one or more interest rates andone or more hypothetical principal amounts called notional principalamounts.
英国上诉法院的Woolf法官在Hazell v Hammersmith and FulhamLBC一案中通过例子对利率掉期进行了说明:[10]
For example, one rate may be fixed at 10 per cent.and the other rate may be equivalent to the six-month LondonInter-Bank Offered Rate (“LIBOR”). If the LIBOR rate over theperiod of the swap is higher than 10 per cent. then the partyagreeing to receive “interest” in accordance with LIBOR willreceive more than the party entitled to receive the 10 per cent.Normally neither party will in fact pay the sums which it hasagreed to pay over the period of the swap but instead will make asettlement on a “net payment basis” under which the party owing thegreater amount on any day simply pays the difference between thetwo amounts due to the other.
掉期交易具有期货合同的特征,随着价格的波动,一方的获益往往是另一方的损失。与期货交易一样,掉期交易并不需要实际履行,而是通过结算各自的盈亏来完成掉期协议的履行。不难看出,掉期应当是衍生品家族中的精英,因为它淋漓尽致地体现了衍生品最为本质的价值。掉期种类繁多,包括利率掉期,利率股权掉期,股权掉期,外汇掉期,信用违约掉期,总收益掉期,以及清算掉期等。
信用衍生品
信用衍生品 (credit derivatives)作为衍生品的一种,是指一方可以将自己面临的信用风险转移给另一方并为之支付代价的合同。作为承担信用风险的合同另一方承诺在约定信用风险发生时承担信用风险造成的后果。美联储的信用衍生品定义是:[11]
Credit derivatives are off-balance-sheet financialinstruments that permit one party (the beneficiary) to transfer thecredit risk of a reference asset, which it typically owns, toanother party (the guarantor) without actually selling the asset.In other words, credit derivatives allow users to ‘‘unbundle’’credit risk from financial instruments and trade itseparately.
与其他衍生品相比,例如期货合同等,信用衍生品并没有很长的历史,但是却有相当快的发展。涉及到信用风险转移的衍生品都可以称为信用衍生品,主要包括信用违约掉期,信用违约指数掉期,总收益掉期,资产掉期,信用违约掉期期权,信用违约指数掉期期权以及信用价差远期期权等。信用衍生品交易属于场外交易,除了适用标准协议外(ISDA),一般不受政府的管制。
历史的追溯
衍生品是否有历史其实并不打紧,但可能是为了让衍生品有一个美好的将来,有不少人硬着头皮牵强附会地要替衍生品找出形形色色的祖宗来。
拉班与雅各的爱情故事
有人认为衍生品交易出现在公元前1700年,为此搬出的证据却是不容置疑的圣经记载:[12]
To start we need to go back to the Bible. InGenesis Chapter 29, believed to be about the year 1700 BC, Jacobpurchased an option costing him seven years of labor that grantedhim the right to marry Laban’s daughter Rachel. His prospectivefather-in-law, however, reneged, perhaps making this not only thefirst derivative but the first default on a derivative. Labanrequired Jacob to marry his older and notably less attractivedaughter Leah. Jacob married Leah, but because he preferred Rachel,he purchased another option, requiring seven more years of labor,and finally married Rachel…. Some argue that Jacob really hadforward contracts, which obligated him to the marriages, but thatdoes not matter. Jacob did derivatives, one way or theother.
把上述圣经故事视为衍生品的起源是为了给衍生品及其交易贴上既浪漫又不失正宗的标签,只是牵强得也已到了离奇的地步。拉班与雅各约定的是在雅各替拉班工作了7年后可以娶他的女儿蕾洁,若把这一约定视为期权,就雅各而言应当是认购期权,而认购期权是一种选择权,即在约定时间来临时权利人可以决定是否认购。期权的基本特征是权利人通过支付一定的代价为自己获得一个未来的选择机会。然而在上述例子中,雅各和丽亚结婚是一个错误,而不是一个选择,是拉班违背承诺的结果。雅各爱的实际上是蕾洁,娶蕾洁不是一个选择或机会,而是他的追求和目标。正如现代生活中的工人辛辛苦苦工作了一个月是为了拿到工资,而不是为自己获得一个放弃工资的机会。鉴于相同的理由,雅各最终和蕾洁成婚依然不是期权,附加的7年的工作只能表明雅各对蕾洁深深的爱。把上述圣经故事理解为是远期合同(forward contract) 也是不通的。远期合同的基本特征是缔约和履行的分离,虽然价格和数量等都已经确定了,但履行发生在未来。然而,雅各在缔约后就马上开始履行合同了。因此上述圣经故事充其量只能比作为一个有一方先履行的双务合同。
汉谟拉比时代的文件
可能是由于公元前1700年仍不够遥远,无法体现衍生品之深邃,又有人主张衍生品出现在时间更早的公元前2000年的中东:[13]
The logic of the derivative instruments may beseen around 2000 BC in the Middle East. There was a document inAssyria in the Hammurabi’s reign, authorizing the bearer to receive in 15 days in theCity of Eshama on the Tigris 8½minae of lead deposited with the Priestess of theTemple (Einzig, 1970, 15). This contract can beconsidered as a first evidence of a derivative trading. It was anoption in today’s terminology.
无论是把上面描述的授权持有人在15天内收到铅的文件看作是一种衍生品交易还是把该文件说成是今天的期权都透露出比较夸张的想象力。上面描述的那份文件只是表明一方对另一方作出的承诺,仅此而已。如果那份文件是一个期权合同的话,首先,获得期权是要付出代价的,上述例子至少没有说明文件持有人付出了代价;其次,如果作出承诺的人已经收到了文件持有人付出的代价,那么在持有人从神庙女祭司那里得到铅的时候还必须为此支付代价,因为期权的行使其实就是一个买卖的执行,买方理应为货物支付代价。
伦敦和大阪的交易
就在交易所内进行的衍生品交易而言,不少人都认为第一个远期合同出现在1637年英国伦敦的皇家交易所,而第一个期货合同 (futures contract)则出现在1650年日本大阪的粮食市场:[14]
The first exchange for trading derivativesappeared to be the Royal Exchange in London, which permittedforward contracting. The celebrated Dutch tulip bulb mania … wascharacterized by forward contracting on tulip bulbs around 1637.The first “futures’’ contracts are generally traced to the Yodoyarice market in Osaka, Japan around 1650. These were evidentlystandardized contracts, which made them much like today’s futures,although it is not known if the contracts were marked to marketdaily and/or had credit guarantees.
现代社会的产物
有的人则认为衍生品并没有真正意义上的历史,它就是现代社会的产物。Frederic SMishkin就将衍生品的出世定格在20世纪70年代的美国芝加哥商品交易所。虽然现代衍生品都与金融资产有关,但刚出世时的衍生品则是针对商品的,尤其是农产品:[15]
Given the greater demand for the reduction ofinterest-rate risk, commodity exchanges such as the Chicago Boardof Trade recognized that if they could develop a product that wouldhelp investors and financial institutions to protect themselvesfrom, or hedge, interest-rate risk, then they could make profits byselling this new instrument. Futures contracts, in which the selleragrees to provide a certain standardized commodity to the buyer ona specific future date at an agreed-on price, had been around for along time. Officials at the Chicago Board of Trade realized that ifthey created futures contracts in financial instruments, which arecalled financial derivatives because their payoffs are linked to(i.e. derived from) previously issued securities, they could beused to hedge risk. Thus, in 1975, financial derivatives wereborn.
衍生品的划时代性
除非另有企图,否则考证衍生品的历史是无聊的。衍生品是划时代的,即使历史上早有衍生品,它们也早已脱胎换骨了。我们这一代可以看到的衍生品及其交易无时不刻散发着只有当代人才可能拥有的高智商和大智慧,要求我们的先辈也拥有类似智商和智慧显然是不公平的。更重要的是,无论衍生品到底出现在什么年代,它对金融体系乃至我们每个人的影响毫无疑问都是当代的,而且是划时代的,是我们自己创造了历史。虽不能归责于先辈,但可以炫耀于后代。
保值与投机之争
衍生品本身并不具有任何功能,无论是保值还是投机都是衍生品交易带来的结果。衍生品交易的结果是保值还是投机取决于交易人的交易方式,而不是衍生品自身的功能。
保值的假象
强调衍生品具有保值功能的人会喋喋不休地告诉你衍生品交易是如何为我们排忧解难,创造幸福的。除非有理由担心自己无法进行保值操作,否则强调衍生品交易的保值作用就是醉翁之意,就像一个爱美的女孩在大冬天穿着短裙告诉你冬练对健康和体质的诸多积极作用。美国俄亥俄州地区法院的Feikens法官在Procter & GambleCo v Bankers TrustCo一案中就已经指出衍生品交易既可以用来保值,也可以用来投机,他说:[16]
Derivatives transactions may be based on the valueof foreign currency. US Treasury bonds, stock indexes, or interestrates. The values of these underlying financial instruments aredetermined by market forces, such as movements in interest rates.Within the broad panoply of derivatives transactions are numerousinnovative financial instruments whose objectives may include ahedge against market risks, management of assets and liabilities,or lowering of funding costs; derivatives may also be used asspeculation for profit.
2008年的金融危机来临之前,大量的银行做了大量的衍生品交易,如果这些衍生品交易都具有保值的功能,所有风险均应荡然无存了,又哪来的金融危机呢?面对金融危机过后的遍地狼藉,我们不仅要问题自己:是金融危机过于凶猛以致于衍生品交易的保值独门绝技力不从心?还是衍生品交易本来就是引狼入室的角儿?2007年第4季度,美国商业银行的现金及衍生品交易损失了99.7亿美元,而第3季度的收入仅有23亿美元。2007年整个财政年度,美国商业银行衍生品交易收入为55亿美元,比2006年的188亿少了133亿美元。按照美国货币管理局的意见,收入的急剧下降可以归咎于2007年下半年交易结果表现不佳 (poor tradingresults)。[17]毫无疑问,这里的“不佳”不是指衍生品保值功能的不佳,因为保值本无佳与差的区别。这里的“不佳”应当是指投机结果的不佳。
场内场外的变幻
衍生品交易因交易地点不同可以分为场内交易和场外交易,场内交易 (on-floortrading) 是指在交易所进行的交易,而场外交易 (off-floor trading,over-the-count, OTC) 则是指在交易所外进行的交易。根据交易场所的不同,衍生品又可以分为场内衍生品(exchange-trade derivatives) 和场外衍生品 (OTCderivatives)。衍生品的场内交易受法律及交易所规则的严格管制,而场外交易则是随意的私下交易。场外交易的特点是,只要你情我愿,衍生品交易就可以进行了。市场的自由程度已经达到了下注不再需要筹码了境界了。只要你有胆量,即使身无分文,几十亿美元的买卖顷刻间就成了。只是到了交割的时节,那些赢了钱的满世界在找那些输了钱的。Alan NRechtschaffen描述场外衍生品交易是:[18]
OTC derivatives are contracts directly negotiatedby counterparties on a principal-to-principal basis. As such, OTCderivatives permit counterparties to negotiate specific contractterms and thus allow a firm to tailor a contract to its individualneeds. However, OTC derivatives tend to be illiquid and subject tocounterparty or credit risk.
场内交易的优点是基本上解决了信用风险的问题,交易人无论和谁交易其实质都是在与交易所进行交易,因为交易所保证了交易的实际履行。而交易所之所以承担所有交易人的信用风险是因为每个交易人都必须向交易所提供保证金或履行担保。交易所每天都会对所有交易进行结算(markedto market),从而确保交易人在交易所的账户始终保持适当的余额。下文是Alan NRechtschaffen对在交易所进行的衍生品交易的描述:[19]
The exchange takes steps to minimize its owncounterparty credit risk by regulating its market participants toensure their financial integrity. First, an exchange’sclearinghouse serves as counterparty to every trade. That is, theclearinghouse guarantees each contract. Thus individual tradersnever need to conduct individual credit evaluations of acounterparty. The individual counterparty credit risk of OTCderivative contracting is replaced by the risk of a clearinghousedefault. The clearinghouse itself is less likely to default thanany individual trading partner. This is true because ofexchange-imposed margin and mark-to-market requirements, as well asthe loss-sharing provisions an exchange requires of itsmembers.
根据国际清算银行的统计,截止到2002年底的已完成交易当尚未结清的衍生品交易总金额为141.7万亿美元;2003年年底的总额为200万亿美元;2004年年底为248.288万亿美元;2005年年底270万亿美元;2006年年底415万亿美元;2007年年底596万亿美元;2008年年底596万亿美元;2009年年底615万亿美元;2010年年底601万亿美元;2011年年底达到648万亿美元。[20]2011年全世界GDP总量是69.66万亿,[21]因此2011年衍生品场外交易额竟然是当年全世界GDP总量的9.3倍。
麻将的启发
麻将是中国人发明的博弈用具,古代以骨面竹背,现代大多用塑料制成的一个个小长方块,上面刻有字样或图案。麻将的玩法可以是简单的,老少皆宜且容易上手,也可以是相当的复杂,从而体现玩家高人一等的智商。你可以强调麻将的识字作用,虽然你明白自动麻将机不会进入幼儿园教孩子们识字。当你家小孩将你的麻将当作积木玩时,你多半不会有物尽其用的欣慰,更多的则是一份担忧,生怕由于小孩的无知影响麻将的完整性,从而坏了它最神圣的作用。麻将就是麻将,最正当用法是四人围坐一桌,轮流做庄,运用技法和算法争个高低,博个输赢,小赌怡情,大赌伤命。
衍生品也一样,无论其有多么强大的保值功能,是人们用来合法赌博的工具。由于衍生品交易是基于不确定变量设计的,因而具有天生的投机功能,如同那个在赌桌上滚动的骰子,在其最终停下来之前无法知道是大还是小。在衍生品投机交易中,风险不再是遭人厌恶的东西,而是令人鼓舞的因素,投机者正是通过承受风险而获利的。在衍生品投机交易中只有名义的交易,而不再有实际的买卖。以货币掉期交易为例,提出交易建议的一方并不持有任何实际货币交易,但依然会同意与对方在一段时间内就固定数额的货币达成掉期协议。交易双方对自己所交易的货币其实并不感兴趣,他们感兴趣的是该货币的市场价格变化。虽有用不少图表、模型和定律等包裹了起来,让围观者肃然起敬。但平心而论,衍生品的复杂性远不如麻将。只是衍生品很难小赌,因此也就不再有怡情的功能,只能直接丧命了。
航运界的奇葩
航运界也有衍生品,名曰航运衍生品,以其基础价格或指数与航运有关而得名。航运衍生品又被称为运费衍生品(freight derivatives),因为航运衍生品大多是涉及运费及其变动。在2008年的金融危机来临之前,运费衍生品已成为航运业的热门话题和传奇,因为运费衍生品交易的刺激性远高于传统的货物运送可能带来的热情。其中远期运费协议是当之无愧的奇葩。
猜想能力的比拼
远期运费协议 (forward freightagreements) 是20世纪90年初期出现的一种运费衍生品交易,取代了期货合同而成为运费衍生品交易的主要形式。远期运费协议是最为活跃的衍生品交易,其基本特征是针对特定数量,特定货物,特定船舶以及特定航线对未来运费价格进行猜测。远期运费协议中的运费可以是程租中的运费,也可以是期租中的租金。Amir HAlizadeh等人给远期运费协议下了如下定义:[22]
A forward freight agreement (FFA) is an agreementbetween two counterparties to settle a freight rate or hire rate,for a specified quantity of cargo or type of vessel, for one or abasket of the major shipping routes in the dry-bulk or the tankermarkets at a certain date in the future. The underlying asset ofFFA contracts is a freight rate assessment for an underlyingshipping route or basket of routes which is produced by the BalticExchange or by other providers of market information, such asPlatts in the tanker sector. FFAs are settled in cash on thedifference between the contract price and an appropriate settlementprice.
我们的市场是多元化的,只要有人猜高,就会有人猜低,永远不用担心成不了买卖。进行远期运费交易的人与其所交易的货物和航线无关,交易双方关心的是自己对未来运价或租金的猜测是否准确。猜准的赢钱,猜错的输钱,仅此而已。英国高院的Gloster法官曾对远期运费协议的“打赌”的本质作出过如下评价:[23]
FFAs are contracts for differences pursuant towhich the parties agree a fixed price (‘the Contract Rate’) inrespect of future months (or years) (‘the Contract Period’) fordesignated contract routes published by the Baltic Exchange. If thefinal settlement price for the designated route (‘the SettlementRate’) is higher than the Contract Rate, then the seller will paythe difference to the buyer, usually at the end of a contractmonth, and vice-versa. In essence, an FFA is a ‘bet’ as to thefuture movements of the freight market.
双赢的传说
MartinStopford是MaritimeEconomics一书的作者,他将远期运费协议交易与赛马进行了比较,得出的结论是远期运费协议能够保证交易双方都赢,他是这样说的:[24]
To illustrate the principle, suppose a shipownerhas a racehorse which is favourite to win a race with a $1 millionprize and a bookmaker has accepted $1 million bets that the horsewill win. If the horse wins, the owner gets $1 million and thebookmaker loses $1 million. Neither is very happy with this ‘all ornothing’ situation, so they draw up a contract to share some oftheir risk. If the horse wins, the shipowner pays the bookmaker$0.5 million out of his winnings, and if it comes second thebookmaker pays the shipowner $0.5 million out of his profit. Thanksto the contract they both get $0.5 million regardless of whetherthe horse comes first or second. Basically that is what the FFAs …do. They share the risk that freight rates … may go up or downunpredictably. Different derivatives markets specialize indifferent types of risk (e.g. currency, interest rates,commodities, oil prices etc).
在上述例子中,船东和庄家约定的是在赛马跑第一时将自己所赢的100万元分50万给庄家,而在赛马仅跑第二时则由庄家在自己所得的100万元中给船东50万。比较费解的是Stopford认为在有此种约定时,无论赛马跑了第一还是第二,船东和庄家都可以获得50万元。这种无论输赢双方都可以获得50万元的比赛一天来个一万场也不会有人嫌多,但只是好得有点不敢相信而已。假设第一场赛马跑了第一,船东得到50万,庄家赔了50万;再假设第二场赛马跑了第二,船东支付50万,庄家获得50万。两场比赛后,船东和庄家应当不分输赢,而不是各得50万。假设赛马连续两场比赛都跑了第一,船东可以赢100万,庄家则输了100万;或者赛马连续两场都只跑了第二,船东便输100万,庄家则赢100万。因此,除非Stopford为每一场比赛提供100万元,否则双赢只能是一个美好的但已经失传的传说。
[1]S Scott MacDonald et alManagement of Banking6th ed Cengage Learning 2006 p.210.
[2]John Hull Options, Futures, and OtherDerivatives 7th ed Pearson 2009 p.1.
[3]Basel Risk Management Guidelines forDerivatives July 1994.
[4]Berkshire Hathaway Inc, 2002Annual Report.
[5]Mohammed Avais Financial Innovation and PovertyReduction International Journal of Scientific and ResearchPublications, Vol 4, Issue 1, January 2014..
[6]Trading and Capital-MarketsActivities Manual s.4310.1.
[7]Trading and Capital-MarketsActivities Manual s.4320.1.
[8]Trading and Capital-MarketsActivities Manual s.4330.1.
[9]Trading and Capital-MarketsActivities Manual s.4325.1.
[10][1990] 2 QB 697 at739.
[11]Trading and Capital-MarketsActivities Manual s.4350.1.
[12]Don M Chance Essays in Derivatives - Risk-TransferTools and Topics Made Easy 2nd ed John Wiley &Sons 2008, p.7.
[13]S Riederova K Růžičkova,Historical Development ofDerivatives’ Underlying Assets Acta Universitatis Agriculturaeet Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, Vol LIX, No 7, 2011,p.522.
[14]Don M Chance Essays in Derivatives - Risk-TransferTools and Topics Made Easy 2nd ed John Wiley &Sons 2008, p.8, see also S Riederova K Růžičkova, Historical Development ofDerivatives’ Underlying Assets Acta Universitatis Agriculturaeet Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, Vol LIX, No 7, 2011,p.523.
[15]Frederic S Mishkin The Economics of Money, Banking andFinancial Markets, 10th ed Pearson 2013,p.274.
[16]925 F Supp 1270 at 1275 (SDOhio 1996).
[17]OCC’s Quarterly Report on BankTrading and Derivatives Activities Fourth Quarter 2007.
[18]Alan N Rechtschaffen Capital Markets, Derivatives and theLaw Oxford University Press 2009, p.162.
[19]Alan N Rechtschaffen Capital Markets, Derivatives and theLaw Oxford University Press 2009, p.163.
[20]BIS OTC Derivatives Statistics,www.bis.org/statistics/derstats.htm.
[21]World Economic Outlook – GrowthResuming, Dangers Remain, International Monetary Fund, April2012.
[22]Amir H Alizadeh et al Shipping Derivatives and RiskManagement Palgrave 2009, p.125.
[23]Pioneer Freight Futures Co Ltd vTMT Asia Ltd [2011] 1CLC 855 at 888.
[24]Martin Stopford Maritime Economics 3rded Routledge 2009, p.193.