爱华网7.JiaqingEmperor(嘉慶帝)
1796–1820
TheJiaqingEmperor(嘉慶帝)was born on 13 November 1760. He was theseventhemperoroftheManchu-ledQing dynasty, andthe fifth Qing emperor to rule overChina, from1796 to 1820.
He was the son of theQianlong Emperor. During hisreign, heprosecutedHeshen(和珅)(the corrupt favorite of Qianlong) and attempted to restore thestate and curb the smugglingofopiuminside China.
He was born at theOld SummerPalace(圆明园),8km (5mi) northwest of thewalls ofBeijing, and was given thenameYongyan(永琰),changed into Yongyan (顒琰)when he became emperor: the first character of his private name waschanged from 永to顒,both pronounced Yong, as the former is used commonly. This noveltywas introduced by his father theQianlongEmperorwho thought it not proper to use a commoncharacter in the Emperor's private name due to the long-standingpractice ofnaming taboo.
He was the fifteenth son of the Qianlong Emperor.His mother was aHanChineseconcubineof the secondrank Ling (令贵妃),who became a favorite of the Emperor. She was posthumouslymadeEmpressXiaoyichun(孝仪纯皇后)when her son became emperor. She was the daughter of Wei Qingtai(魏清泰),an official in the Qing administration whoseHanChinesefamily had long been integrated in theManchu elites. In 1818 Jiaqing Emperor made hismother's family officially Manchu, and changed their Chinese familyname Wei into the Manchu clan name Weigiya.
After the first two original choices for heir to the thronesuccumbed early to disease, in December 1773 Yongyan was secretlychosen by the Qianlong Emperor to succeed him. In 1789 he was madePrince of the 1st rank Jia (嘉亲王).
At the end of his reign, the Qianlong Emperor worked closely withaManchugovernment ministercalledHeshen. Prince Jia hated the notoriouslycorrupt Heshen for his abuse of power, and vowed to punish theminister once he became Emperor.
In October 1795, in the 60th year of his reign, the QianlongEmperor announced his intention to abdicate in favor of Prince Jia:he did not think it proper to rule longer than his grandfather, thelateKangxi Emperor. Prince Jia acceded to thethrone and proclaimed theeranameofJiaqing(嘉慶)in February 1796. For the next three years however, Jiaqing ruledas Emperor in name only. Decisions were made by his father,theRetiredEmperorQianlong.
With the death of his father at the beginning of February 1799, theJiaqing Emperor took control of the government and prosecutedHeshen. Heshen was charged with corruption andabuse of power. He was stripped of his titles and properties, andordered to commit suicide. Heshen'sdaughter-in-law, Princess He Xiao, a sister of the new Emperor, wasspared from punishment and given a few properties from Heshen'sestates.
At the time the empire faced internal disorder, most importantlythe large-scaleWhiteLotus(1796–1804) andMiaoRebellions(1795–1806), as well as an emptytreasury. Emperor Jiaqing engaged in the pacification of the empireand the quelling of rebellions. He endeavored to bring China backto its 18th-century prosperity and power. However, due in part tolarge outflows ofsilverfrom thecountry as payment for the opium smuggled into ChinafromBritish India, the economydeclined.
Members of the Qing royal family tried to assassinate him twice –in 1803 and in 1813. The princes involved in the attempts on hislife were executed. Other members of the imperial family, numberingin the hundreds, were exiled.
TheGreat Qing Codeincludes onestatute titled "Prohibitions Concerning Sorcerers and Sorceresses"(禁止師巫邪術).In 1811 a clause was added to it with reference to Christianity. Itwas modified in 1815 and 1817, settled in its final form in 1839under theDaoguang Emperor, and abrogated in 1870under theTongzhi Emperor. Itsentenced Europeans to death forspreadingCatholicismamongChinese and Manchus. Christians who would notrepent their conversion were sent toMuslim citiesinXinjiang, to be givenasslavesto Muslim leadersandbeys.
8. Daoguang (道光帝)
1820–1850
TheDaoguangEmperor(道光帝),wasborn in theForbidden City on 16 September1782. He was theeighthemperoroftheQing dynastyand the sixthQing emperor to rule overChina, from 1820 to1850.
He was given thenameMianning(綿寧),changed into Minning (旻寧)when he became emperor: the first character of his private name waschanged from Mian (綿)to Min (旻)so as to avoid the relatively common Mian character. This noveltywas introduced by his grandfather theQianlongEmperorwho thought it inappropriate to use acommon character in the emperor's private name due to thelong-standing practice ofnaming taboo.
He was the second son of Yongyan (永琰),who became theJiaqing Emperorin1796. His mother, the principal wife of Yongyan,was Lady Hitara of the (Manchu) Hitara clan, who became empresswhen Jiaqing ascended the throne in 1796. She isknown posthumously as Empress Xiaoshurui (孝淑睿皇后).
Mianning was well liked by his grandfathertheQianlong Emperorandfrequently accompanied the elderly emperor on hunting trips. On onesuch trip at the age of nine he successfully hunted a deer whichgreatly amused Qianlong. In 1813, while a prince,Mianning also played a vital role in repelling andkillingWhite Lotusinvaders whostormed the Forbidden City. This action earnedMianning important merits in securing his claim for thethrone.
In September 1820, at the age of 38, Mianning inherited the throneafter his father the Jiaqing Emperor suddenly died of unknowncauses. Now known as the Daoguang Emperor, heinherited a declining empire with Western imperialists encroachingupon the borders of China. During his reign, China experiencedmajor problems withopium, which was imported intoChina by British merchants. Opium had started totrickle into China during the reign of his greatgrandfatherEmperor Yongzhengbutwas limited to approximately 200 chests annually. By the timeofEmperor Qianlong's reign, this amount hadincreased to 1000 chests, 4000 chests by Jiaqing's era and morethan 30,000 chests during Daoguang's reign.
He issuedmanyedictsagainstopiuminthe 1820s and 1830s, which were carried out byCommissionerLin Zexu. Lin Zexu's effort to haltthe spread of opium in China led directly to the First Opium War.With the development of theOpium War, Lin wasmade a scapegoat and the Daoguang emperor removed Lin's authorityand banished him toYili.Meanwhile in theHimalayas,theSikh Empireattempted anoccupation ofTibetbut wasdefeated in theSino-Sikhwar(1841–1842). On the coasts, technologicallyand militarily inferior to the European powers, China lost the warand surrenderedHong Kongby wayof theTreaty of NankinginAugust 1842.
In 1831 Daoguang killed his own 23 year old son after strikinghim.In 1831 an attempt was made to usurp the throneand oust Daoguang by someone else.In 1850 this happened again, though it did notsucceed.
In 1811 a clause sentencing Europeans to death forspreadingCatholicismhad beenadded to the statute called "Prohibitions Concerning Sorcerers andSorceresses" (禁止師巫邪術)in theGreat QingCode. Protestants hoped thatthe Chinese government would discriminatebetweenProtestantismandCatholicism, since the law mentioned the latter by name, but afterProtestantmissionariesgaveChristian books to Chinese in 1835 and 1836, the Daoguang Emperordemanded to know who were the "traitorous natives"inCantonwho had supplied themwith books. The foreign missionaries werestrangled or expelled by the Chinese.
Daoguang died on 25 February 1850, at theOldSummer Palace (圓明園),8kms northwest of the wallsofBeijing. He was succeeded by his eldestsurviving son. Daoguang failed to understand the intention ordetermination of the Europeans, or the basic economics of a war ondrugs. Although the Europeans were outnumbered,outgunned and were thousands of miles away from home, they couldbring far superior firepower to bear at any point of contact alongChinese coast. The Manchu court was highlydependent on the continued flow of tax/levy payment from southernChina via the Grand Canal, which was easily cut off by the Britishexpeditionary forceatZhenjiang. He had a poorunderstanding of the British and the industrial revolution thatBritain had undergone, preferring to turn a blind eye to the restof the world. It was said that Daoguang did noteven know where Britain was located in the world.His thirty-year reign introduced the initialonslaught by western imperialism and foreign invasions that wouldplague China, in one form or another, for the next one hundredyears.
He was interred in the Muling (慕陵)mausoleum, which is part of theWestern QingTombs(清西陵),120 kms southwest ofBeijing.
9. Xianfeng (咸豐)
1850–1861
TheXianfengEmperor(咸豐帝)was born on 17 July 1831 as Aisin-Gioro IJu. He was theninthEmperoroftheQing Dynasty, and the seventh Qing emperor torule over China, from 1850 to 1861.
Yizhu was born in 1831 at theImperial SummerPalace Complex, 8 kms northwest of the wallsofBeijing, and was the fourth son oftheDaoguang Emperor. His mother wastheImperial ConsortQuan(全貴妃),of the (Manchu)Niuhuruclan, whowas made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumouslyasEmpressXiaoquancheng(孝全成皇后).Yizhu was reputed to have an ability in literature andadministration which surpassed most of his brothers, whichimpressed his fatherDaoguang Emperorwho thereforedecided to make him his successor.
Yizhu succeeded the throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relativelyyoung Emperor. He inherited a dynasty that faced not only internalbut also foreign challenges.Yizhu'sreigntitle,Xianfeng(咸丰),which means "Universal Prosperity", did not reflect the situation.In 1850, the first of a seriesof popular rebellions began that would nearly destroy the dynasty.TheTaiping Rebellionbegan inDecember 1850, whenHong Xiuquan,aHakkaleader of a syncreticChristian sect, defeated local forces sent to disperse hisfollowers. Hong then proclaimed the establishmentof theTaiping HeavenlyKingdomand the rebellion spread to severalprovinces with amazing speed. The next yeartheNien RebellionstartedinNorth China. Unlike the Christian Taipings',the Nien movement lacked a clear political program, but they becamea serious threat toBeijingwiththe mobility of their cavalry-based armies. Fixed between twopowerful forces the Qing suffered repeated defeats.
In 1853 the TaipingcapturedNanjingand for a while it seemed that Beijingwould fall next; but the Taiping northern expedition was defeatedand the situation stabilized. Xianfeng dispatchedseveral prominent mandarins, likeZeng Guofan, andImperial relatives, like the Mongol generalSenggeRinchen, to crush the rebellions, but they only obtained limitedsuccess. ThebiggestrevoltoftheMiao peopleagainst Chineserule in history started in 1854, and ravaged the region untilfinally put down in 1873. In 1856 an attempt toregain Nanjing waswasdefeatedand thePanthayRebellionbroke outinYunnan.
Meanwhile, an initially minor incident on the coasts triggeredtheSecond Opium War. Anglo-French forces, afterinciting a few battles (not all victories for them) on the coastnearTianjin, attempted "negotiation" with theQing Government. Xianfeng, under the influence of the Concubine Yi(懿貴妃,later theEmpress Dowager Cixi), believed inChinese superiority and would not agree to any colonial demands.He delegatedPrinceGongfor several negotiations but relations brokedown completely when a British diplomatic envoy, Sir Harry Parkes,was arrested during negotiations on 18 September.
The Anglo-French invasion clashed with Sengge Rinchen's Mongoliancavalry on 18 September near Zhangjiawan before proceeding towardthe outskirts of Beijing for a decisive battle in TongzhouDistrict, Beijing. On 21 September, attheBattle of Palikao, Sengge Rinchen's 10,000troops, including élite Mongolian cavalry, were completelyannihilated after several doomed frontal charges against theconcentrated firepower of the Anglo-French forces, which enteredBeijing on 6 October.
On 18 October 1860, the western forces went on to loot and burn theImperial Summer Palaces ofQīngyīYuán(清漪园)andYuánmíngYuán(圆明园).Upon learning about this news, Xianfeng's health quicklydeteriorated.
While negotiations with the European powers were being held,Emperor Xianfeng and his Imperial entourage fled to the northernpalace inJeholin the name ofannual Imperial hunt. As his health worsened, Xianfeng's ability togovern also deteriorated, and competing court ideologies in courtled to the formation of two distinct factions — one under the richManchuSushun,PrincesYiandZheng,and the other under theConcubine Yi, supported byGen.RongluandYehenalaBannermen.
Xianfeng died on 22 August 1861, at the imperial summer resort(行宮xinggong)inJehol, 230 kilometers northeastofBeijing. His successor was his one survivingson,Zaichun, who was barely 6 years old. A daybefore his death, Xianfeng had summoned Sushun and his group to hisbedside, and gave them an Imperial Edict that dictated the powerstructure during the young Emperor's minority. The edict appointedfour members of the Imperial line (Zaiyuan, the Prince Yi; Duanhua,the Prince Zheng; Duke Jingshou; andSushun) andfour Ministers (Muyin, Kuangyuan, Du Han, and Jiao Youying) as theeight members of a new regency council to aid the young Emperor. Bytradition, after the death of an Emperor, the body was to beaccompanied to the Capital by the regents. Concubine Yi and theEmpress, who were now both given titles ofEmpressDowager, traveled to Beijing ahead of time, and planned a coup thatousted Sushun from the regency. The Concubine Yi would subsequentlyrule China for the next 47 years, as theEmpressDowager Cixi.
Emperor Xianfeng was interred in theEastern QingTombs(清東陵),125 kilometers/75 miles east ofBeijing, in theDingling (定陵"Tombof Quietude") mausoleum complex.
Xianfeng's reign saw the continued decline of the Qing dynasty.Rebellions in the country, which began the first year of his reign,would not be quelled until well into the reign oftheTongzhi Emperorand resultedin millions of deaths. Xianfeng also had to deal with the Englishand French and their ever growing appetite to expand trade furtherinto China. Xianfeng, like his father, the Daoguang Emperor,understood very little about the Europeans and their mindset. Whilewesterners saw different nations as equals deserving mutual respectas an international norm, Xianfeng viewed non-Chinese Europeans asinferior and regarded the Europeans' repeated requests to betreated as equal as an offence. When the Europeans introduced thelong held concept of an exchanged consular relationship, Xianfengquickly rebuffed the idea.
During the Second Opium War, repeated requests by Europeans to meetwith Xianfeng were also denied. At the time of Xianfeng's death, hehad not even once met any foreign dignitaries.
The Xianfeng Emperor had a large sexual appetite. He was a lover ofopera and alcohol, and often became violent with his servants. Hewas known to smokeopium.
10. Tongzhi (同治)
1861–1875
TheTongzhiEmperor(同治)was born on 27 April1856asZaichun（载淳）of theManchuAisin Gioroclan,was the tenthemperoroftheQing Dynasty, and the eighth Qing emperor torule overChina. His reign, from 1861 to 1875,which effectively lasted through his adolescence, was largelyovershadowed by the rule of his motherEmpressDowager Cixi. Although he had little influence over state affairs,the events of his reign gave rise to what historians call the"Tongzhi Restoration", an unsuccessful attempt to stabilise andmodernise China.
The only surviving son of theXianfengEmperorandEmpress Dowager Cixi,Tongzhi attempted political reform in the period oftheTongzhi Restoration. Hisfirstregnal namewas Qixiang(祺祥),but this name was later abandoned by Cixi in favour of Tongzhi, acontraction of the classical phrasetonggui yuzhi(同归与治),which means "restoring order together".An alternate interpretation reads it as "motherand son co-emperors" (母子同治天下),which fits the state of affairs, as the empressdowager wielded real power and ruled behind the scenes. Thetraditional Chinese political phrase "attending audiences behind acurtain" (垂帘听政)was coined to describe Cixi's rule through her son.
Tongzhi became emperor at the age of five upon the death of hisfather, theXianfeng Emperor. His father's choiceof regent,Sushun, was removed in favour of apartnership between his motherEmpress DowagerCixi,Empress Dowager Ci'an, and hisunclePrince Gong.
Tongzhi marriedEmpress Xiaozheyi, who was fromaMongolclan. He diedofsmallpoxat the age of 18. Hewas buried in the Huiling Mausoleum,Eastern QingTombs,Hebei. He had no sons to succeed him.Folklore says that Tongzhi died from asexuallytransmitteddisease(specificallysyphilis),due to his alleged affairs with prostitutes outside of the palace,and that the smallpox diagnosis was given only because the merediscussion of sexually transmitted diseases in China was taboo.However no credible evidence exists to substantiate therumours.
Tongzhi's mother Empress Dowager Cixi andEmpressDowager Ci'anresumed regency after enthroningZaitian, son ofPrince Chun, astheGuangxu Emperor.EmpressXiaozheyidied a few months after Tongzhi's death.Popular stories suggest that she either committed suicide or thatEmpress Dowager Cixi starved her to death by cutting off her foodsupply.
11. Guangxu (光绪)
1875–1908
TheGuangxuEmperor(光绪帝)was born on14 August 1871asZaitian(载湉)of theManchuAisinGioroclan. He was theeleventhemperoroftheQing Dynasty, and theninthQing emperorto ruleoverChina. His reign lastedfrom 1875 to 1908, but in practice he ruled,underEmpress Dowager Cixi's influence, only from1889 to 1898. He initiatedtheHundred Days' Reform, but was abruptly stoppedwhen Cixi launched a coup in 1898, after which he was put underhouse arrest until his death. Hisregnalnamemeans "glorious succession".
Zaitian was the second son ofYixuan, Prince Chun,and his primary spouseYehenara Wanzhen, a youngersister ofEmpress Dowager Cixi.On 12 January 1875, Zaitian's cousin,theTongzhi Emperor, died without ason. Empress Dowager Ci'an suggested enthroningone ofYixin, Prince Gong's sons as the nextemperor, but she was overruled by Cixi. Instead,breaking the imperial convention that a new emperor must always beof a generation after that of the previous emperor, Cixi nominatedher nephew and the imperial family agreed with herchoice.
Zaitian was named heir and successor to his uncle,theXianfeng Emperor, rather than his cousin andpredecessor, theTongzhi Emperor, so as tomaintain the father-son succession law. Heascended to the throne at the age of four and used "Guangxu" ashisregnal name, therefore he is known as theGuangxu Emperor. He was adopted by Empress Dowager Cixi as a son.For her part, she remained as regent under thetitle "Holy Mother Empress Dowager". In hischildhood, the Guangxu Emperor was taught byWengTonghe, with whom he shared a fond relationship.
Even after Guangxu began formal rule,EmpressDowager Cixicontinued to influence his decisionsand actions, despite residing for a period of time attheSummer Palace, which she had ordered Guangxu'sfather to construct, with the official intention not to intervenein politics.
After taking power, Guangxu was obviously more reform minded thanthe conservative leaning Cixi. He believed thatby learning from constitutional monarchies like Japan, China wouldbecome more politically and economically powerful. In June 1898,Guangxu began theHundred Days' Reform, aimed at aseries of sweeping political, legal, and social changes.For a brief time, after the supposed retirementof Empress Dowager Cixi, Guangxu issued edicts for a massive numberof far-reaching modernising reforms with the help of moreprogressive ministers such asKangYouweiandLiangQichao.
Changes ranged from infrastructure to industry andthecivil examination system.Guangxu issued decrees allowing the establishmentof a modern university inBeijing, theconstruction of the Lu-Han railway, and a system of budgets similarto that of the west. The initial goal was to makeChina a modern, constitutional empire, but still within thetraditional framework, as with Japan'sMeijiRestoration.
The reforms, however, were not only too sudden for a China stillunder significant neo-Confucianinfluence andother elements of traditional culture, but also came into conflictwith Cixi, who held real power. Many officials,deemed useless and dismissed by Guangxu, were begging Cixi forhelp. Although Cixi did nothing to stop theHundred Days' Reform from taking place, she knew the only way tosecure her power base was to stage a military coup.Guangxu was made aware of such a plan, and askedKang Youwei and his reformist allies to plan his rescue.They decided to use the helpofYuan Shikai, who had a modernised army, albeitonly 6,000-strong. Cixi relied onRonglu's army inTianjin.
Ronglu also had an ally, generalDong Fuxiang, whocommanded 10,000 MuslimKansuBravesof the imperial army, including generalssuch asMaFuxiangandMa Fulu.They were stationed in the Beijing metropolitanarea and constantly attacked foreigners and westerners, they wereon the side of the conservatives under Cixi during the coup.They were also armed with western rifles andmodern artillery, which showed that the conservative faction ofEmpress Cixi were willing to use western technology.
Taiwanese professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖)revealed new research about the coup plot. TheGuangxu Emperor may have actually been suckered into a trap by thereformists led byKang Youwei. ABritish missionary and a former Japanese PrimeMinisterItō HirobumitrickedKang, into agreeing to cede Chinese sovereignty to Itō. Britishambassador Sir C. MacDonald said that the reformists had actuallydamaged the modernisation of China. EmpressDowager Cixi learned of the plot, and decided to put and end to itand save China from coming under foreign control.
HoweverYuan Shikaiwas havingdoubts about the plan. The day before the staged coup was supposedto take place, Yuan revealed all the planstoRonglu, exposing the Guangxu Emperor's plans.This raised Cixi's trust in Yuan, who therebybecame a lifetime enemy of Guangxu. In September1898, Ronglu's troops took all positions surrounding the ForbiddenCity, and surrounded the emperor when he was about to performrituals. Guangxu was then taken to Ocean Terrace,a small palace on an island in the middle of a lake linked to therest of theForbidden Citywithonly a controlled causeway. Cixi followed with anedict dictating Guangxu's total disgrace and "not being fit to beEmperor". Guangxu's reign had effectively come toan end.
For his house arrest, evencourteunuchswere chosen tostrategically serve the purpose of confining him.There was also a crisis involving Guangxu'sremoval and abdication and the installment of a new emperor.AlthoughEmpress Dowager Cixinever forced Guangxu to abdicate, and his era had in name continueduntil 1908, Guangxu lost all honours, respect, power, andprivileges given to the emperor other than its name.Most of his supporters were exiled, and some,includingTan Sitong, were executed in public byEmpress Dowager Cixi.KangYouweicontinued to work for a more progressiveQing Empire while in exile, remaining loyal to the Guangxu Emperorand hoping to eventually restore him to power.Western governments, too, were in favour of theGuangxu Emperor as the pre-eminent authority figure in China, andrefused to recognise Empress Dowager Cixi. Ajoint official document issued by western governments stated thatonly the name "Guangxu" was to be recognised as the legalauthoritative figure, over all others. Empress Dowager Cixi wasangered by the move.
There was dispute, for a period of time, over whether the GuangxuEmperor should continue to reign, even if only in name, as emperor,or simply be removed altogether. Most courtofficials seemed to agree with the latter choice, but some likeRonglupleaded otherwise. Pujun, son of theconservativePrince Duan, was designated as hisheir presumptive.
Following their victory in theBoxer Rebellion,theEight-NationAllianceoccupied Beijing on 14 August and aChinese declaration of war which the Guangxu Emperor opposed, buthad no power to stop, the Guangxu Emperor fled with Empress DowagerCixi toXi'an, dressed in civilianoutfits.
Returning to theForbiddenCityafter the withdrawal of the allied powers,Guangxu was known to have spent the next few years working in hisisolated palace with watches and clocks, which had been a childhoodfascination, some say in an effort to pass the time until the deathof Empress Dowager Cixi. He still had supporters,both inside China or in exile, who wished to return him topower.
Guangxu died on 14 November 1908, a day before Empress DowagerCixi. He died relatively young, at the age of 37.For a long time there were several theories aboutGuangxu's death, none of which were completely accepted byhistorians. Most were inclined to maintain thatGuangxu was poisoned by Cixi (herself very ill) because she wasafraid of Guangxu reversing her policies after her death, andwanted to prevent this from happening. The factthat the two died a day apart is significant.Another possibility is that Guangxu was poisonedbyYuan Shikai, who knew that if Guangxu were toever come to power again, Yuan would likely be executed fortreason. There are no reliable sources to provewho murdered the Guangxu Emperor. In 1911, Cixi's formereunuchLi Lianyingwas murdered,possibly by Yuan, implying that they had conspired in the emperor'smurder. This theory was offeredbyPuyiin his biography, whoclaimed he heard it from an oldeunuch.
The medical records kept by the Guangxu Emperor's physicianindicate the emperor suffered from "spells of violent stomachache",and that his face would turn blue, typical symptomsofarsenic poisoning.To dispel persistent rumoursthat the emperor had been poisoned, the Qing court produceddocuments and doctors' records suggesting that Guangxu died fromnatural causes, but these did not successfully divertsuspicion.
On 4 November 2008, forensic tests revealed that the level ofarsenic in the Guangxu Emperor's remains was 2,000 times higherthan that of ordinary people. Scientistsconcluded that the poison could only be administered in a high doseone time. China Dailyquoted ahistorian, Dai Yi, who speculated that Cixi may have known of herimminent death and may have worried that Guangxu would continue hisreforms after her death.
The Guangxu Emperor was succeeded by Empress Dowager Cixi'shandpicked heir, his nephewPuyi, who tooktheregnal name"Xuantong".Guangxu's consort, who became theEmpress DowagerLongyu, signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending twothousand years of imperial rule in China. EmpressDowager Longyu died childless in 1913.
After theXinhai Revolutionof1911, the newRepublic ofChinafunded the construction of Guangxu'smausoleum in theWestern Qing Tombs.The tomb was robbed duringtheChinese Civil Warand theunderground palace (burial chamber) is now open to thepublic.
In 1912Sun Yat-senpraised theGuangxu Emperor for his educational reform package that allowedChina to learn more about Western culture. Afterthe establishment of the People's Republic of China, historian FanWenlan (范文瀾)called the emperor "a Manchu noble who could accept Western ideas".Some historians think that the emperor is the first Chinese leaderto implement policies of modernisation and capitalism.The Guangxu Emperor also epitomised the lowestimperial power had come since the beginning of the Qing Dynasty,and is the only ruler of the Qing Dynasty to have been put underhouse arrest during his own reign.
The Guangxu Emperor had one empress and two consorts in total.His principal spouse wasEmpressXiaodingjing, while his two consorts wereConsortJinandConsort Zhen.
Guangxu was forced byEmpress DowagerCixito marry her niece (hiscousin)Jingfen, who was two years his senior.Jingfen's father Guixiang (Cixi's younger brother) and Cixiselected her as Guangxu's Empress Consort in order to strengthenthe power of her own family. After the marriage,Jingfen was made empress and was granted the honorific title of"Longyu", meaning "Auspicious and Prosperous" (隆裕)after the death of her husband. However, Guangxudetested Empress Longyu, and spent most of his time with hisfavourite concubineConsortZhen(珍妃),better known in English as the "Pearl Consort".Rumours say that in 1900, Consort Zhen wasdrowned by being thrown into a well on Cixi's order after ConsortZhen begged Empress Dowager Cixi to let the Guangxu Emperor stay inBeijing for negotiations with the foreign powers.That incident happened before Empress DowagerCixi was preparing to leave theForbiddenCitydue to the occupation of Beijing bytheEight-Nation Alliancein1900. Like his predecessor,theTongzhi Emperor, Guangxu died without anissue. After the Guangxu Emperor's death in1908,Empress DowagerLongyureigned in cooperationwithPrince Chun.
12.Puyi(溥仪)
1908–1911
Puyi(溥仪)was born on 7 February 1906 oftheManchuAisinGioroclan. He was the twelfthand final ruler of theQing Dynasty. He ruled astheXuantongEmperor(宣統皇帝) from 1908 until his abdication on12 February 1912. From1 to 12 July 1917 he was briefly restored to the throne as anominal emperor by the warlordZhang Xun. In 1934he was declared theKangde Emperor of the puppetstate ofManchukuobytheEmpire of Japan, and he ruled until the end oftheSecond Sino-Japanese Warin1945. After thePeople's Republic ofChinawas established in 1949, Puyi was a memberof theChinese People's Political ConsultativeConferencefrom 1964 until his death in 1967.Puyi's abdication in 1912 marked the end of centuries of dynasticrule in China, and he is also widely known asTheLast Emperor.
Puyi's name is romanised in EnglishasPuyi. This naming is inaccordance with the Manchu tradition of avoiding the use of aperson'sclannameandgivennametogetherbut is in completecontravention of Chinese tradition, whereby the given name of aruler was consideredtabooandineffable. Using a former emperor's personal name (or even usingaChinese characterfrom thename) was a punishable offence under traditional Chinese law.However after Puyi lost his imperial title in 1924, he wasofficially styledMr.Puyi(溥仪先生)andMr. Fugi(溥儀先生)in Japanese. His clan nameAisinGioro(爱新觉罗)was seldom used.
Puyi is also known to have used a Western givenname,Henry, which was chosen by his Englishlanguage teacher, a Scotsman namedReginaldJohnston.
When he ruled as Emperor of the Qing Dynasty from 1908 to 1912 andduring his brief restoration in 1917, Puyi'seranamewasXuantong, so he wasknown as theXuantongEmperor(宣統皇帝)during those two periods of time.
As Puyi was also the last rulingEmperor of China,he is widely known asThe LastEmperor(末代皇帝)in China and throughout the rest of the world.Some refer to him asThe LastEmperor of the Qing Dynasty(清末帝).
When Puyi ruled the puppet stateofManchukuofrom 1934 to 1945,his era name wasKangde, so he was known astheKangdeEmperor(康德皇帝)during that period of time.
Puyi's great-grandfather was theDaoguangEmperor(r. 1820–1850), who was succeeded by hisfourth son, theXianfengEmperor(r. 1850–1861).
Puyi's paternal grandfather wasYixuan, PrinceChun(1840–1891), the seventh son of the DaoguangEmperor and a younger half-brother of the Xianfeng Emperor. TheXianfeng Emperor was succeeded by his only son, who becametheTongzhi Emperor(r.1861–1875).
The Tongzhi Emperor died at the age of 18 without a son, and wassucceeded by theGuangxuEmperor(r. 1875–1908), son of 1st Prince Chun andLady Yehenara Wanzhen (younger sister ofEmpressDowager Cixi). The Guangxu Emperor died without an heir.
Puyi, who succeeded the Guangxu Emperor, was theeldest son ofZaifeng, Prince Chun, who was bornto Yixuan, Prince Chun and his secondconcubineLadyLingiya(1866–1925). Lady Lingiya used to be amaid in the residence of Yixuan. Born a Han Chinese, her originalfamily namewasLiu(劉),and this was changed to the Manchu clannameLingiyawhen she became theconcubine of Yixuan. Zaifeng was therefore a younger half-brotherof the Guangxu Emperor and the first in line to succession afterGuangxu.
Puyi was in a branch of the Aisin Gioro clan withclose ties toEmpress Dowager Cixi, who was fromtheYehenaraclan. Cixi's niece,who later becameEmpress DowagerLongyu(1868–1913), was married to the GuangxuEmperor.
Puyi had a younger fullbrother,Pujie(1907–1994), whomarried a cousin ofEmperor Hirohito,LadyHiro Saga. The rules of succession werechanged to allow Pujie to succeed Puyi, who had nochildren.
Puyi's last surviving younger half-brother Puren (b. 1918) hasadopted the Chinese nameJinYouzhiand currently still lives in China. In 2006Jin Youzhi filed a lawsuit in regards to the rights to Puyi's imageand privacy. The lawsuit claimed that those rights were violated bythe exhibit "China's Last Monarch and His Family".
Puyi's second cousin,Pu Xuezhai(溥雪齋),was a musician who played theguqin, and an artistofChinese painting.
Puyi's motherwasYoulan(1884–1921), thedaughter ofRonglu(1836–1903), astatesman and general fromtheGuwalgiyaclan. Ronglu wasone of the leaders of the conservative faction in the Qing court,and a staunch supporter ofEmpress Dowager Cixi;Cixi rewarded his support by marrying his daughter, Puyi's mother,into the imperial family.
The Guwalgiya clan was regarded as one of the most powerful Manchuclans in the Qing Dynasty.Oboi, an influentialmilitary commander and statesman who was a regent duringtheKangxi Emperor's reign, was from the Guwalgiyaclan.
Chosen byEmpress Dowager Cixionher deathbed, Puyi became emperor at the age of 2 years and 10months in December 1908 after theGuangxuEmperordied on 14 November.Titled theXuantongEmperorPuyi's introduction to the life of anemperor began when palace officials arrived at his family residenceto take him. The toddler Puyi screamed andresisted as the officials orderedtheeunuchattendants to pick himup.His father,Prince Chun, became Prince-Regent(摄政王).During Puyi's coronation intheHall of Supreme Harmony, the young emperor wascarried onto the throne by his father. Puyi wasso frightened by the scene before him and the deafening sounds ofceremonial drums and music that he started crying. His father coulddo nothing except to quietly comfort him, "Don't cry, it'll be oversoon."
Puyi'swet nurse, Wen-Chao Wang, was the only onewho could console him, and therefore she accompanied him totheForbidden City. Puyi did notsee his biological mother,Princess Consort Chun,for the next seven years. He developed a specialbond with Wen-Chao Wang and credited her with being the only personwho could control him. She was sent away when hewas eight years old. After Puyi married, he would occasionallybring her to the Forbidden City, and later Manchukuo, to visit him.After his special government pardon in 1959, he visited her adoptedson and only then learned of her personal sacrifices to be hisnurse.
Puyi's upbringing was hardly conducive to the raising of a healthy,well-balanced child. Overnight, he was treated as a god and unableto behave as a child. The adults in his life, except for hiswet-nurse Wen-Chao Wang, were all strangers, remote, distant, andunable to discipline him. Wherever he went, grown men would kneeldown in a ritualkowtow, averting their eyes untilhe passed. Soon the young Puyi discovered the absolute power hewielded over the eunuchs, and he frequently had them beaten forsmall transgressions.
Quotation of Puyi:
“ | No account of my childhood would be complete without mentioning theeunuchs. They waited on me when I ate, dressed and slept; theyaccompanied me on my walks and to my lessons; they told me stories;and had rewards and beatings from me, but they never left mypresence. They were my slaves; and they were my earliestteachers. | ” |
After his marriage, Puyi began to take control of the palace. Hedescribed "an orgy of looting" taking place that involved "everyonefrom the highest to the lowest". According to Puyi, by the end ofhis wedding ceremony, the pearls and jade in the empress's crownhad been stolen.Locks were broken, areas ransacked, and on June27, 1923, a fire destroyed the area around the Palace ofEstablished Happiness. Puyi suspected it was arson to cover theft.The emperor overheard conversations among the eunuchs that made himfear for his life. In response, he evicted the eunuchs from thepalace. His next plan of action was to reform theHousehold Department; the officials of which he appointed became sowealthy from theft and graft that they were able to run their ownbusinesses outside the palace.
Puyi's father,Prince Chun, served as a regentuntil 6 December 1911 whenEmpress DowagerLongyutook over in the face oftheXinhai Revolution.
Empress Dowager Longyu endorsed the "Imperial Edict of theAbdication of the Qing Emperor" (清帝退位詔書)on 12 February 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, under a dealbrokered byYuan Shikai(ageneral of theBeiyang Army) with the imperialcourt inBeijingand theRepublicans in southern China.Signed with the newRepublic ofChina, Puyi was to retain his imperial title and be treated by thegovernment of the Republic withtheprotocolattached to aforeign monarch. This was similar to Italy'sLawof Guarantees(1870) which accordedthePopecertain honors andprivileges similar to those enjoyed by theKing ofItaly. Puyi and the imperial court were allowedto remain in the northern half of theForbiddenCity(the Private Apartments) as well as intheSummer Palace. A hefty annual subsidy of fourmillion silvertaelswas grantedby the Republic to the imperial household, although it was neverfully paid and was abolished after just a few years.
The Articles of Favourable Treatment of the Great Qing Emperorafter his Abdication
The document is dated 26 December 1914.
After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, his title ofdignity is to be retained by the Republic of China with thecourtesies which it is customary to accord to foreignmonarchs.
After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, he will receivefrom the Republic of China an annual subsidy of 4,000,000silvertaels. After the reform of the currencythis amount will be altered to $4,000,000 (max.).
After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, he may, as atemporary measure, continue to reside in the Palace (intheForbidden City), but afterwards he will removehimself to theSummer Palace. Hemay retain his bodyguard.
After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, the temples andmausoleums of the imperial family with their appropriatesacrificial rites shall be maintained in perpetuity.The Republic of China will be responsible for theprovision of military guards for their adequateprotection.
As the Chong Mausoleum (崇陵)of the late Emperor Dezong (theGuangxu Emperor)has not yet been completed, the work will be carried out accordingto the proper regulations (relating to imperial tombs).The last ceremonies of sepulture will also beobserved in accordance with the ancient rites.The actual expenses will all be borne by theRepublic of China.
The services of all the persons of various grades hitherto employedin the Palace may be retained; but in future no eunuchs are to beadded to the staff.
After the abdication of the Great Qing Emperor, his privateproperty will be safeguarded and protected by the Republic ofChina.
The imperial guard corps as constituted at the time of theabdication will be placed under the military control of the WarOffice of the Republic of China. It will be maintained at itsoriginal strength and will receive the same emoluments asheretofore.
In 1917 the warlordZhangXunrestored Puyi to the throne from July 1 toJuly 12.Zhang Xun ordered his army to keeptheirqueuesto display loyaltyto the emperor. During that period of time, a small bomb wasdropped over the Forbidden City by a Republican plane, causingminor damage.This is considered the first aerial bombardmentever in East Asia. The restoration failed due to extensiveopposition across China, and the decisive intervention of anotherwarlord,Duan Qirui.
Puyi was expelled from theForbiddenCityin 1924 by the warlordFengYuxiang.
Following his expulsion from theForbidden City,Puyi spent a few days at the house of hisfatherPrince Chun, and then temporarily residedin the Japanese embassy for a year and a half. In1925, he moved to the Quiet Garden Villa intheJapaneseConcessioninTianjin.During this period, Puyi and his advisersChenBaochen,ZhengXiaoxuandLuoZhenyudiscussed plans to restore Puyi as Emperor.Zheng and Luo favoured enlisting assistance from external parties,while Chen opposed the idea. In September 1931 Puyi sent a lettertoJirō Minami, the Japanese Minister of War,expressing his desire to be restored to the throne.He was visited byKenji Doihara,head of the espionage office of theJapaneseKwantung Army, who proposed establishingPuyi as head of a Manchurian state. In November 1931, Puyi andZheng Xiaoxu traveled to Manchuriato completeplans for the puppet state ofManchukuo. TheChinese government ordered Puyi's arrest for treason, but wasunable to breach the Japanese protection. ChenBaochen returned toBeijingwherehe died in 1935.
On 1 March 1932, Puyi was installed by the Japanese as the rulerofManchukuo, considered by most historians asapuppet stateoftheEmpire of Japan, underthereigntitleDatong(大同).In 1934, he was officially crowned the emperor ofManchukuo under the reigntitleKangde(Wade-Giles:Kang-te;康德).He was constantly at odds with the Japanese in private, thoughsubmissive in public. He resented being "Head of State" and then"Emperor of Manchukuo" rather than being fully restored as a QingEmperor. Puyi lived in a palace (now theMuseum ofthe Imperial Palace of the Manchu State) in this period. At hisenthronement he clashed with Japan over dress; they wanted him towear a Manchukuo-style uniform whereas he considered it an insultto wear anything but traditional Manchu robes. In a typicalcompromise, he wore a Western military uniform to hisenthronement(theonly Chinese emperor ever to do so) and a dragon robe to theannouncement of his accession at theTemple ofHeaven.
Puyi's younger full brotherPujie, who marriedLadyHiro Saga, a distant cousin to the JapaneseEmperorHirohito, was proclaimed heir apparent.The marriage had been politically arrangedbyShigeru Honjō, a general oftheKwantung Army. Puyi thereafter would not speakcandidly in front of his brother and refused to eat any foodprovided by Hiro Saga. Puyi was forced to sign an agreement that ifhe himself had a male heir, the child would be sent to Japan to beraised by the Japanese.
From 1935 to 1945 Kwantung Army senior staffofficerYoshiokaYasunori(吉岡安則)wasassigned to Puyi as Attaché to the Imperial Household in Manchukuo.He acted as a spy for the Japanese government, controlling Puyithrough fear, intimidation, and direct orders.There were many attempts on Puyi's life duringthis period, including a 1937 stabbing by a palace servant.During Puyi's reign as Emperor of Manchukuo, hishousehold was closely watched by the Japanese, who increasinglytook steps toward thefullJapanisationof Manchuria,to prevent him from becoming too independent. He was feted by theJapanese populace during his visits there, but had to remainsubservient to Emperor Hirohito. It is unclearwhether the adoption of ancient Chinese styles and rites, such asusing "His Majesty" instead of his real name, was the product ofPuyi's interest or a Japanese imposition of their own imperialhouse rules.
During these years, Puyi began taking a greater interestintraditional Chinese lawandreligion(suchasConfucianismandBuddhism),but this was disallowed by the Japanese. Gradually his oldsupporters were eliminated and pro-Japanese ministers put in theirplace.During this period Puyi's life consisted mostlyof signing laws prepared by Japan, reciting prayers, consultingoracles, and making formal visits throughout his state.
At the end of World War II, Puyi was captured by theSovietRed Armyon 16 August 1945while he was in an airplane fleeing to Japan.The Soviets took him totheSiberiantownofChita. He lived inasanatorium, but was later takentoKhabarovsknear the Chinese border.
In 1946, he testified at theInternationalMilitary Tribunal for the Far Eastin Tokyo,detailing his resentment of how he had been treated by theJapanese.
When theChinese CommunistPartyunderMaoZedongcame to power in 1949, Puyi was repatriatedto China after negotiations between the Soviet Union andChina. Except for a periodduring the Korean War, when he was movedtoHarbin, Puyi spent ten years intheFushun War Criminals ManagementCentreinLiaoningprovinceuntil he was declared reformed. Puyi came to Peking in 1959 withspecial permission from Chairman Mao Zedong and lived the next sixmonths in an ordinary Peking residence with his sister before beingtransferred to a government-sponsored hotel. He voiced his supportfor the Communists and worked at the Peking Botanical Gardens. Atthe age of 56, he marriedLi Shuxian, a hospitalnurse, on 30 April 1962, in a ceremony held at the Banquet Hall ofthe Consultative Conference. He subsequently worked as an editorfor the literary department of theChinesePeople's Political Consultative Conference, where his monthlysalary was around 100yuan,anoffice in which he served from 1964 until his death.
With encouragement from Chairman Mao Zedong andPremierZhou Enlai, and openly endorsed by theChinese government, Puyi wrote hisautobiographyWo De Qian BanSheng(我的前半生;literally "The First Half of My Life"; translated in EnglishasFrom Emperor to Citizen) in the 1960s togetherwith Li Wenda, an editor of Peking's People Publishing Bureau. Inthe Oxford University edition of the book, in thechapterI Refuse to Admit My Guilt, he made thisstatement regarding his testimony at the Tokyo war crimestrial:
“I now feel very ashamed of my testimony, as I withheld some ofwhat I knew to protect myself from being punished by my country. Isaid nothing about my secret collaboration with the Japaneseimperialists over a long period, an association to which my opencapitulation after September 18, 1931 was but the conclusion.Instead, I spoke only of the way the Japanese had put pressure onme and forced me to do their will.
I maintained that I had not betrayed my country but had beenkidnapped; denied all my collaboration with the Japanese; and evenclaimed that the letter I had written to Jirō Minami was afake. I covered up my crimes in order to protectmyself.”
Mao Zedongstarted theCulturalRevolutionin 1966, and the youth militia known astheRed Guardssaw Puyi, whosymbolised Imperial China, as an easy target of attack. Puyi wasplaced under protection by the local public security bureau,although his food rations, salary, and various luxuries, includinghis sofa and desk, were removed. Puyi became affected physicallyand emotionally. He diedinPekingof complicationsarising fromkidneycancerandheartdiseaseon 17 October 1967 at the age of61.
In accordance with the laws of the People's Republic of China atthe time, Puyi's body was cremated. His ashes were first placed attheBabaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery, alongsidethose of other party and state dignitaries. (This was the burialground of imperial concubines and eunuchs prior to theestablishment of thePeople's Republic ofChina.)
In 1995, as a part of a commercial arrangement, Puyi's widowtransferred his ashes to a new commercial cemetery in return formonetary support. The cemetery is located neartheWestern Qing Tombs, 120km(75mi) southwest of Peking, where four of thenine Qing emperors preceding him are interred, along with threeempresses and 69 princes, princesses and imperialconcubines.
