爱华网
Lesson 11
11. Evolution, Emotion, andReason: Emotions, Part I
Keywords：Emotion；Smile；Fear；社交性情感；亲属性利他行为
威廉姆·詹姆斯认为，在我们看来，有些东西十分自然，然而它们之所以自然并不是有什么必然的逻辑联系，而是因为它们是与我们的一些生理特征一起出现的。比如说，为什么粪便很令人作呕？它令人作呕不是宇宙的必然，而是人类对它形成的看法。对于屎壳郎来说，粪便就很有吸引力。人们喜欢吃巧克力，但并不是所有的动物都喜欢巧克力。
情感，它们为什么存在，存在的目的是什么，how do they function?
我们从一个关于情感的错误观念开始。科幻电影中经常会出现这样的一种机器人，它们具有超能力，可以出色地完成任何事情，但是它们没有情感。有时候我们会觉得，如果自己没有情感，而仅靠理性，那么我们能把事情做得更好。
史蒂芬·平克在他的《大脑是如何运作的》一书中写道，这样的人是不存在的。没有情感，你就没有获取成功的动力和意念。没有情感，你也不会懂得如何与他人协作。没有情感，在大街上穿不穿衣服对你而言都无所谓。
一个叫菲尼亚斯·盖奇，他是一个工头，1848年，在一次事故中，铁钎穿过他的大脑。他没有死，其他任何机能都没有问题，但是他失去了他的性格。他曾经是一个非常顾家的好男人，但是现在他变得极为野蛮、粗鲁和低俗。还有其他一些案例，他们部分地失去了情感能力。
面部表情是表达情感的一种方式。面部表情具有普遍性。
人们发现了微笑与情感之间的很多有趣的现象。人们微笑不纯粹是因为他们高兴，两者之间并没有必然联系，微笑是因为他们想传达高兴的情感。比如说，奥运会金牌获得者在领奖时并不是一直都在笑的，而是当他登上领奖台面对观众的时候他会给一个大大的微笑。再比如，做爱是一项令人愉快的体育活动，你可以研究一下做爱的时候人们是不是一直在笑。
微笑有好几种不同的类型。比如泛美微笑（Pan Amsmile），这是一种礼节性微笑。一个真正高兴的微笑被称为杜兴微笑（Duchennesmile）。两者之间的区别在于眼部的动作。大约只有十分之一的人能伪装杜兴微笑。
约翰·高特曼研究了新婚夫妇的微笑。他以此来预测这份婚姻是不是长久。他发现，婚姻的丧钟不在于你是否对对方大叫，不在于你们是否吵架，而在于蔑视。
腼腆的微笑，这是一种有特殊目的的微笑，它在表达尴尬，你希望得到别人的认同和好感，但是当时你处在一个紧张的情况下。
Student：非人类的灵长类动物的微笑和人类一样吗？
Teacher：I don’t know。
Student：有些人的微笑为什么比其他人的微笑好看呢？
Teacher：一个无趣的跟心理学无关的答案是有些人人天生就长得好看。更深层次的答案是，有些人更会微笑，有些人更善于表达这种情感。
微笑是极具感染力的。当你面对一个微笑着的人的时候，你很难做到面无表情，这种现象被称为情感感染
Student：露齿微笑和不露齿微笑有什么区别吗？
Teacher：我打赌肯定有，这是一种地区性差别。研究表明，英格兰人和美国人笑起来不一样。每个地区的人都有泛美微笑、杜兴微笑和腼腆微笑，但是细节取决于文化。
Fear is a kind of basic emotion，universal。
恐惧也具有面部表情。
The basic question is: what are we afraidof？蜘蛛、蛇、高度、风暴、大型动物、黑暗、血、陌生人、羞辱、深水、一个人离家。并不完整，但却是最主要的。为什么人们不怎么害怕枪、电源插座，因为它们不是我们祖先所害怕的东西，而上述事物在人类进化史上对人类有威胁。有人对芝加哥市的孩子做过调查，发现他们最害怕的不是车祸、枪击，而是蛇和蜘蛛，这些是自然恐惧。
社交性情感，分为两种，一种是对你有血缘关系的人的情感，另一种则是你对那些没有亲属关系但依然要打交道的人的情感。
对亲属的利他行为，科学家用了很长时间来研究这种情感到底是如何产生的。一个经典的错误观点是，人类和其他灵长类动物是完全利己的。但从生物进化学的角度来看就会发现其错误，关心自己后代的生物比起那些只关心自己的生物来说更符合自然选择的理念。前者会努力使自己的基因得以延续，而后者则只是维护自身的存在。比如说，弓形虫寄生在老鼠身体里，老鼠被猫吃掉后它则留在猫的粪便里，从而传播回给老鼠。如果你是一只老鼠并且感染了弓形虫的话，你会非常的健康除了一件事，弓形虫重新设计了你的大脑，使你不再那么怕猫了，这是一种弓形虫适应环境的手段。狂犬病病毒也是如此，它使动物到处乱跑乱咬，从而使自己得以传播。
这可以帮助我们解释利他行为。能存活下来的基因是能够不断复制自己的基因。所以基因将我们的大脑设计为保护自己孩子和亲人的结构。
How do we deal with babies?
Thecry of baby is subtle，它既要使人感到厌烦而促使父母起身来关注婴儿。另一方面又不能太吵了以至于别人都想把它给灭了。那声音在最低的程度上非常惹人烦，这和音量和音调无关，而是因为你的大脑就是这么被设计的。 Thereason why we feel baby is cute，也是因为我们的大脑天生如此，理由同样在于基因延续。火星人可未必觉得人类的宝宝可爱。
现在我们来讨论婴儿如何回应我们。有个古老的理论，是斯金纳提出的橱柜理论，他认为婴儿对父母的依赖是因为父母提供食物。鲍白提出了不同的理论，他认为婴儿依赖于他们的母亲是因为舒适性以及对陌生人的恐惧。哈洛进行了实验，他观察非人类的灵长类动物，“铁丝妈”只提供食物，而“布妈”提供温暖和舒适。
我们将在下节课解释哈洛的实验，再讨论对于非亲属的利他行为。
Lesson 12
12.Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II
Keywords：the emotional relationship between parents andkids ；与非亲属；互惠利他；搭便车者；囚徒困境；最后通牒游戏；荣誉文化
At the beginning of this class，I’d like to answer the question raised by astudent last class first. That is,非人类的灵长类动物也像人类一样有这么多种微笑吗？ Theanswer is no，非人类的灵长类动物不会用微笑来打招呼
对舐犊之情的最好例证是帝企鹅(emperorpenguin)。它们对子女的抚养可以说非常精细甚至冒着巨大风险。
Howdoes the brain of babies form the emotional rely on thatcreature?
斯金纳提出了“橱柜理论”。鲍白则认为是因为母亲给予婴儿温暖和舒适
亨利·哈洛did an experiment，证明猩猩更倾向于“布妈妈”
What’s the difference between children raised byparents and those sent to orphanage as a child?
No oneknows exactly the answer，but at least there is no bigdifference。
How about the child without mother’scaring?
哈洛做了这样一个实验，将猴子隔离在只有“铁丝妈妈”的环境中，发现这些猴子长大后都疯了，它们孤僻，不懂得交流，不会当母亲，一只猴子甚至把人工受精生下来的小猴子摔死。
这证明早期关系和依赖对于灵长类动物的成长非常重要。
在人类社会中我们不能做这样的实验，但是却有现实例证。在严苛的抚养院中长大的孩子相对而言会变得更加冷漠和孤僻。
不过，如果在早期重新给予这些孩子关怀，他们会逐渐改善。
Student：孤儿院的孩子互相安抚吗？
Teacher：有根据
Student：中间情况怎么样？ 如果父母只给予很少的安抚会怎样？
Teacher：Such a situation doesexist，这些孩子会相对更加孤僻，but wedon’t have conclusive evidence
从进化论角度理解亲属之间的关系并不难，令人困惑的是动物（包括人类）与非亲属也有微妙复杂的关系，事实上，动物对非亲属也挺友好的。动物们向同伴发出危险警告；动物们互相照顾彼此的孩子；动物们分享食物，比如说一只吸血蝙蝠吸饱了血并不自己留着，而是飞回洞穴给同伴一些，即互利惠他主义。
但总是存在骗子或搭便车者，即那些只受益而不付出的人。从短期来看，骗子的确比其他人占了更多便宜，但是长此以往他并不能得到更多。吸血蝙蝠会辨认并记住那些只接收而不付出的蝙蝠，这说明只有当整个群体共同惩治骗子，互惠共利的机制才能运作下去。
报答在社会行为的演化中影响很大，经典例证就是“囚徒困境”。
“囚徒困境”的特点在于对你而言做出那个选择是最好的，但是如果双方都做出这个选择，则双方的境遇都会变糟。
【“囚徒困境”很有名，这里就不费硬盘了，自己问百度大神去】
比如说军备竞赛、毒品交易
罗伯特·艾斯克罗德，曾让选手带着他们的程序参加“囚徒困境”，有些选手的程序非常强大。而胜出者是阿纳托尔·拉波波特，有趣的是他的程序是最简单的，即投桃报李法则。第一次选择合作，从友善开始，接下里的回合根据上回合的情况而做出不同的选择。如果对方欺骗，则惩罚，如果对方改善，则原谅。这是个很简单却是很重要的道理。
最后通牒游戏
A和B分享10美元，A有权开价，在1—10中任选一个数字，而B所做的只是接受或拒绝。如果B拒绝，则两人都得不到这10美元。实验结果发现，大多数人开出4、5的价格，很少有人开出1美元，因为这很可能激怒对方，使得两人都得不到一分钱。虽然理性人会选择接受1美元因为有总比没有好，但非理性人则往往不会，所以对方会迫于你的非理性而做出妥协。
这个游戏证明了一个听起来荒谬的观点——理性人容易被利用，理性人通常不在乎对方的挑衅。而非理性人有时会有优势，因为对方会屈从于你的非理性。非理性人有时会选择宁为玉碎不为瓦全。
Forinstance，当你在选择终身伴侣的时候，A进行了理性的分析，考虑了长久的未来，认为你们之间是合适的；而B则不那么理性，他只是为爱疯狂。或许有时候B更可爱一点。
再比如，人们通常不会去招惹那些不理性的、脾气暴躁的人，因为他们火起来什么事都干得出来。而一个理性人被骚扰的时候，通常被误以为他是可以被骚扰的。这就是为什么暴力能力有时候是男子气概的一种标志，而忍让则被视作是愚蠢和懦弱。
荣誉文化差异，在法律所鞭长莫及的地方，比如说美国南部的牧场，牛仔建立暴力复仇声誉变得很重要。美国南方人比北方人对有关荣誉的挑衅更加敏感。
Lesson13
13. WhyAre People Different? Differences
Keywords：性格和智力；可信度和有效性；大五人格；韦克斯勒测试；贝尔曲线；基因和环境；弗林效应；父母和孩子之间的相关性
1、人们有何不同，用不同的心理学理论分析你如何不同于他人
2、why people are different?
人们的性别和欲望
Happiness，what makes people feel happy, and what not?人们之间的快乐有何不同？
你生活中的成功和失败
人类差异的根源，two mainelements。一个是性格，一个是智力。
性格
可信度，如果在不同时间测试出同样的结果，经得起时间考验，那就说明有可信度。
有效性，测试能够测出我们想要测量的东西。比如说根据生日测验智商就不能得到有效的结果。
罗夏墨点测试，一开始它是用来检测精神病的，后来它被广泛使用。虽然人们很喜欢用它，但它其实极其无用。因为它没有可信度和有效性。
大五人格Ocean
·外倾性（extraversion）：好交际对不好交际，爱娱乐对严肃，感情丰富对含蓄;表现出热情、社交、果断、活跃、冒险、乐观等特点。
·神经质或情绪稳定性（neuroticism）:烦恼对平静，不安全感对安全感，自怜对自我满意，包括焦虑、敌对、压抑、自我意识、冲动、脆弱等特质。
·开放性（openness）: 富于想象对务实，寻求变化对遵守惯例，自主对顺从。具有想象、审美、情感丰富、求异、创造、智慧等特征。
·随和性(agreeableness)：热心对无情，信赖对怀疑，乐于助人对不合作。包括信任、利他、直率、谦虚、移情等品质。
·尽责性(conscientiousness)：有序对无序，谨慎细心对粗心大意，自律对意志薄弱。包括胜任、公正、条理、尽职、成就、自律、谨慎、克制等特点。
智力Intelligence
抽象的推理能力、解决问题的能力、获取知识的能力，这是聪明的核心象征。还有Memory、心理速度、language、mathematics，knowledge and creativity。
斯皮尔曼。He thinks there are two typesof intelligence
“S”是在特定测试中的智力，如数学测试、空间测试中的结果
“G”是指总体的智力水平。
韦克斯勒测试，平均分为100，68%的人的智力介于85—115之间,95%的人的智力介于70—130之间。0.13%的人的智力在145以上，
贝尔曲线
人们的IQ与他们的日常生活关系密切。
Student：现代人做多了性格测试，出题者如何避免答题人猜到题目背后的意图？
Teacher：出题者会出一些看起来很奇怪的题目。不过实践是检验真理的唯一标准，一项测试是否有效，还要看它是否在长时间内对很多人都有效。
Student：How about 情商(EQ: emotionalquotient)
Teacher：我在之后会提到。但是“情商”测试还没有得到像“IQ”测试一样强有力的证据。
Student：how do you judge a test is good orbad?
Teacher：这里包括了很多细节，如果泛泛而谈需要包括可信度和有效性。如果测验能符合现实情况那它就是一个好的测试。我们怎么知道SAT有用，那是因为它总体上反映了学生的水平。
学生：when we are talking about personality,我们说它具有时间上的稳定性，但我们如何知道它随时间而稳定？，它能改变吗？
Teacher：是的，很多个性会随着时间而改变。
Why weare different?
Tworeasons：Gene and environment即本性和教育、遗传和经历
【关键问题在于两者对人影响的方面和程度】
非共享环境和共享环境
同卵双胞胎分享完全相同的基因
行为遗传学发现，分开成长的同卵双胞胎之间具有很大的相似性。对他们的大脑进行扫描，很难分辨两者之间的区别，即使他们的成长环境不同。
很多事情都具有高度遗传性，包括你是否快乐，政治立场，宗教信仰等等。
组内差异与组间差异是不同的。
弗林效应。个体的智商逐年增加的现象，也就是说下一代的智商比上一代要高。而智力测试则掩盖了这一现象，因为它总是取平均数。孩子得了120分，父亲在他那个年纪得了122分，但事实上孩子的那套题比父亲当年做的那套题更难。【但是我并不认为这是进化的结果，而是教育的结果，下一代人当然比上一代人接受了更多新的知识】
Ashocking viewpoint: the effect of environment on intelligence orpersonality is very small
For example, the IQ of two children without blood relationship haslittle relationship even though they live in one family.
如果以上观点是正确的，那么父母对我们有何影响？他们对我们是有极大影响的，但只发生在受精的那一瞬间，自此以后，他们的影响就微乎其微了。朱迪斯·哈里斯
当然，父母和孩子之间有着绝对的相关性。但是这个相关性需要从不同的角度进行解释。人们认为是父母的行为影响了孩子，还有一种解释是父母和孩子之间有着相似的基因才导致了这种相关性。比如说，父母喜欢读书会使得孩子也成为一个书虫，但也有可能是因为父母和孩子都带有爱看书的基因。有人认为家长经常打孩子会导致孩子产生暴力倾向，但说不定是因为那个孩子本来就是个麻烦制造者所以父母才打他。【原因和结果颠倒】
Lesson14
14.What Motivates Us: Sex
Keywords：sex differences；sex attractiveness；the origin of sex preference
The average time American people spent on sexeveryday is 4 minutes 3 second. Actually, we don’t spent much timeon sex, but it doesn’t mean sex is not important.
为什么大多数动物都具有两性仍是一个迷。达尔文认为两性在进化论的角度来说是奇怪的，因为后代只能继承一个个体的一半基因，而不是全部。但这不是我们今天要思考的问题
我们要思考的问题是
1.First，we should discuss thedifference between male and female.
匿名性接触、社交智力、攻击性、同情心、科学和数学能力的差异
2.Second, we shall talk about sex attractiveness.
相同：beauty不同:
3.At last, we would talk about the origin of sex preferencebriefly.
基础性教育：性的道德性和必然性 【不太懂】
性的道德性：
性不仅是我们生活中亲密的一部分，还涉及道德问题。我必须开始处理一些道德后果和道德含义。所有的生物学家都对性行为有争议，性行为是一种生物适应来传播我们的基因，但是无生殖的性，包括同性性行为，没有为生殖的目标服务，也许在某种意义上，是反常的。
史蒂文平克——《心智探奇》： 自然并不指示我们应该接受什么，或者我们应该如何过我们的生活，在我适合生育的时候，我自愿不要孩子，把我的生物资源浪费在阅读写作、做研究、帮助朋友和学生，还有绕圈慢跑上，忽略了传播我的基因的严肃要求，根据进化论者的标准，我是一个可怕的错误，一个可怜的失败者，但我很开心于这种方式，如果我的基因不喜欢这种方式，他们可以去跳湖。
的确，有时候我们做的事情是服务于自然的指令的，但这并不代表非自然的事情就是错误的。自然进化出我们的大脑，是为了让我们的大脑自己来决定我们的命运。
道德并不一定由生物事实所产生。
性的必然性：【没听懂】
理查德道金斯
某物产生的原因与能推翻他的原因，在逻辑上是分离的。
基因决定的东西并不一定是必然的
文化决定的东西并不一定是很容易改变的
一、What’s the difference between male andfemale?
不要只想到penis和阴道，many animals have neither one.
1. Why the sex cell of male is small but they are big insize?
Thisquestion disturbs scientists a long time, but now we haveconclusion
罗伯特·特里弗斯——“亲本投资”：任何提高后代存活率的投资，通过耗费父母的精力投资其他后代。
Forexample，如果一种动物眨眨眼睛就可以产出一个后代，那么它的亲本投资是很小的；而如果另一种动物需要十年的时间才能产出一个后代，并且在这十年内它不能再拥有另一个后代，那么它的亲本投资则很大。
雄性动物的生殖细胞小，它们的亲本投资也小；而雌性动物的生殖细胞较大，从而它们的亲本投资也大。由此，雄性动物可以让多个雌性受精，迫使雄性的数量相对于雌性更少【不然就会有很多雄性打光棍了，就像中国……】，并且引起雄性之间的竞争。对于雌性，雌性总能找到雄性，所以单纯的数量不重要，雌性之间的竞争是与优质的雄性进行交配。所以，雄性为了得到生殖权利，就进化出了优质的大体型和一些特别的器官。
Thelogical goes like this：the differenceof 生殖细胞大小leads totypical difference of 亲本投资，which lead to 各种心理和生理机能的进化差异。
Ofcourse, sometimes the position of male and female reverse, suchas 尖嘴鱼，male is responsible for bring upoffspring，therefore, thesize of female is bigger.再回忆一下《帝企鹅日记》，male and female bring up their offspringtogether，它们付出的亲本投资是相等的，so are equal in size.
Thinkabout human beings.
男性的体型比女性大百分之十五
2. 攻击性
3. Howabout sex choice?
男性和女性在赞同匿名性行为的比例上是否有差异？
按照进化论的观点，男性应该更能接受匿名性行为，因为这可能产生一个后代，这对男性来说是有利的，而且男性不需要承受女性所受的那样的伤害。而女性则会很挑剔。
卖淫和色情文学在人类中是普遍现象，甚至在灵长类动物中也存在。
4. 对性种类的偏好是什么呢？
库里奇效应，is based on the story of American president卡尔文·柯立芝and hiswife.
每个人都知道男性喜欢和女性进行匿名性行为。
匿名调查：下个月你想要多少个性伴侣？
你会和认识的一个合意伴侣进行性行为吗？
5. What about sex behavior?
Infact，我们很难仅仅从人们做爱的平均次数来区分出人们想要什么，男性和女性的差异。可以更清楚地反映出这种差异的方法是在同性恋人群中。有数据调查说，lesbian 比gay更倾向于一夫一妻制。曾有艾滋病调查发现，男同的性关系非常混乱。对于这些男同，如果他们是异性恋的话，他们会倾向于找更多的女性进行性行为。
有一些性别差异是普遍的
但有一些性别差异的来源人们并不知道来自哪里
智力社会因素：男孩女孩从小就被区别对待
性别自我隔离 持续多久取决于文化，增强了性别差异
西蒙 巴伦肯恩《本质差异》其中一个差异是同情心
科学和数学能力的差异。哈佛大学前校长认为，女性在此方面的建树比不上男性。但他提出的论点不在于女性在平均水平上落后，他认为男性女性在平均技能能力上是一致的，但是男性中的变异更大，也就是说，在男性中有一些是白痴，有一些是天才。这是一个很有争议的论点。
二、What about sex attractiveness？
Wehave great research date about cross-culturalhere：
Questionnaire：你想和什么样的人在一起？
A major discovery is very 靠谱，everyonelikes善良聪明的，atleast they say so.
Butthere are still some differences，women pay more attention to power andstatus，and十分看重对方是否愿意对孩子进行投资。 而这个男性的年龄有多大并不太重要，granted，男性的精子数量随着年龄的增长而下降，but it’s not very important。
Maleconcern slightly different,他们关注女性的生育能力，所以年龄的差异非常重要，因为年龄大的女性不能生育。
Back to another similarity ——Everyone likes Beauty ——and what is beauty?
Beautymeans young
Beautyalso means healthy
Generally，we think a face balanced is morepretty.
Thepreference to balance is not caused by culture, inherent to someextent.
三、The origin of sex preferences
98%的女人对男性来说is attractive
96%的男人对女性来说is attractive—— the data is not necessarilycorrect
有些人是异性恋，有些是双性恋，有些难以被归类，只有一小部分人是纯粹的同性恋，真正让人难以理解的是这一部分
当我们说同性恋的时候，我们并不是在说行为，有些人与同性发生性行为可能只是因为无聊。问题不在于为什么男人会和男人做爱，而在于为什么男人不愿意与女人做爱
Sexpreference并不是自己有意选择的，有一些同性恋者连自己都认为同性恋is immoral，但是自己无力改变
是否与青春期的经历有关？Possibly
同性恋和异性恋是天生的还是后天的？多多少少是有基因的，但并不全部
纯粹同性恋是进化上的一个谜，大迷。完全无关道德问题，只是它不符合进化的规律。从进化适应的角度来说，这种基因应该早就灭绝了。
Q：在其他的动物中，是否有同样的数据呢，在性别偏好方面
A：很多动物都存在同性恋行为，但我不知道纯粹的同性恋现象。
Lesson15
15. APerson in the World of People: Morality
We are going to deal with three facets ofmorality：
Moral feelings, moral judgments, and then moralaction
I’llparticularly focus on why good people do badthings，which lead us to review and discuss theMilgram study (米尔格拉姆研究)
Now, moral feelings is what we’ll start off with
Thequestion is ‘How could moral feelings evolve?’
Moral feelings we could view as feelings of condemnation,shame, pride, righteous anger, but also simple affection, caringfor other people, wanting to do well by them.
You might think that the existence of thesefeelings is a mystery from an evolutionary point of view.在适者生存的残酷背景下，how could animal evolve moralfeelings?
Thereare two answers to this:
Oneanswer is kin selection(亲缘选择)： evolution works at the level of genes, and becauseof that it could give rise to animals that are themselvesaltruistic(利他主义的)。 And they arealtruistic because they act to preserve other animals that sharethe same genes.
The most altruistic behavior of all, giving your live tohelp another, can be explained in cold-blooded evolutionary terms.Animalsthat are altruistic even to the point of dying to help another,those genes will, under some circumstance, be preserved over thegenes of people who are less caring. And that is one force tokindness.
Asecond force towards kindness is cooperation. Even if animals areunrelated, they are nice to one another. Animals have evolved; ourminds have evolved, to enter sort of cooperative situations withother people to surmount deception and cheating.
But what do we know as psychologists about the emergence innature of moral feelings in individuals?
Somecase studies:
Empathy (同理心)：empathy can be viewed as a feeling that your painmatters to me. If you are hurt, in some sense, painful forme.曾有心理学家做过一个实验，当然现在这种实验是违法的。心理学家在两个房间里各放了一只黑猩猩，中间是一道玻璃墙，可以互见彼此，但两只黑猩猩既没有亲属关系，也没见过对方。一只黑猩猩若要得到食物，就要不断地拍打杠杆，而每一次它拍打杠杆，另一只黑猩猩就会被电击一次。心理学家发现，黑猩猩不会让自己饿死，但它会极力减少拍打杠杆的次数，以使对方不受太多的痛苦，自己也不会陪他一同承受。
但这似乎只发生在同类之间，若对面是一只兔子，那黑猩猩就会不停地拍打拍打，看着兔子被电得不亦乐乎。
Now we’ve know for a long time that empathetic feeling isnot logically linked to morality. This is a point made byAristotle(亚里士多德).
I cansee you writhing in pain. That could cause me pain. But thatdoesn’t mean I’m going to be nice to you. I could run away from youor I could blame you for causing me this misery.
Butthis sort of empathy does lead to moral concern andaction.
Empathetic feeling, like any other human capacity, differsacross people.
There is some reason to believe that in thepopulation known as ‘Psychopaths’, this sort of instinctive empathyis broken and the pain of others just doesn’t bother them verymuch.
The second case study of moral feelings is ‘In-group’ and‘Out-group’
I carea lot more about my children than I do about my friends and I caremore about my friends than I care about strangers. We also favorour groups over others.
Robber’s cave study 罗宾斯山洞研究
Tobring together all the warring countries and religion of thisplanet is an alien attack. By the logic of the Sherif it will bringus all together as a group.
Thepsychologist Tajfel after World War Ⅱ, was interested in the question of what couldmake a group.
In one experiment he showed people pictures ofmodern art, and based on their responses he described them as Kleelovers or Kandinsky lovers. Now, this is all made up. They werejust random assignments. But the Klee lovers viewed themselves asmore similar to other Klee lovers. They thought the Klee lovertended to be smarter than the Kandinsky lovers and the Klee loverwould devote more resources to themselves than toothers.
There are three hallmarks for moral judgments
Doesit carry a sense of obligation?
Doseit carry a notion of sanctions?
If yousay you don’t believe in morality. I believe in Nietzsche（尼采）.
Idon’t believe you if you were to say that.
Some sort of moral judgment happens all the time, oftenunconsciously.
Well,we know that there are some universals. There are some aspects ofmoral reasoning that show up everywhere on earth.
But,the anthropologist Richard Shweder gives a list here of humandifferences.
A goodtheory of psychology has to explain how these differencesarise.
Shweder argues there are three styles ofthought：
An ethics of autonomy, an ethics of community, an ethics ofdivinity.
但即使是在同一个道德观模式中，道德判断还是很不同的
这是弗吉尼亚大学强纳森·海德特教授的研究：
大多数人认为，双方自愿的，不伤害其他人的性行为是被允许的。
但现在假设，一对兄妹在大学放假期间去法国游玩，在海滩宿营的那个晚上他们发现两个人做爱会很有趣，于是两个人做好了安全措施发生了性行为，有多少人认为这是被允许的？
调查发现，大多数人觉得这是不可接受的，但是为什么？他们可能给不出强有力的理由，只是说，反正这就是不对的。强纳森把这称为“Moral dumbfounding 道德错愕”
The motivation for Milgram’s work was theHolocaust大屠杀
Summary：
Two forces for evil：
Deindividuation of self（去个性化）：one reason why people are so bad in groups Ibecause you could diffuse your responsibility. Other ways ofdiminishing responsibility include coerce,anonymity.
使对象不再成一个个体：如把人当做货物，take away their names，see them as disgusting，to dehumanize people, all these make people matterless，and make themeasier to kill.
Force for good：
Contact and interdependence联系和相互依赖:this can be viewed as an extend version of selfish gene theory,that is you care about them more for purely selfishreasons.
Robert Wright 罗伯特·赖特 presented this in a very blunt way, but Ithink his quote is quite moving: one of the many reasons I don’twant to bomb the Japanese is that they built myminivan.
Interdependence gives rise to a moralconnection.
Thomas Friedman 托马斯·弗里德曼proposed the “Golden ArchesTheory of Human Conflict”(金色拱门防止冲突理论)，which said no two countries which each haveMcDonald’s will ever go to war, because McDonald’s forces globalinterdependence.
Moregenerally, there’s what’s been called “The ContactHypothesis”接触假说，maybe more interesting issimple contact with other people. Particularly if you are of equalstatus, you have common goal, and you have social support make youlike people more.
Themilitary is a superb example.
The final force for good from a moralperspective:
If youtake another person’s perspective, you’ll care more aboutthem.
肯尼迪, when making the plea for equal rights, didn’tproduce an abstract philosophical argument but rather try to invitehis listeners who were white to engage in a perspectivetaking.站在黑人的角度上，他们愿不愿意仅仅因为肤色的原因而受到歧视，他们愿不愿意与黑人对换位置。
Youcan also use the power of metaphor:
So, ifI want to cause you to feel moral concern for a fetus, I will dowell to describe it as a pre-born child.
If I wanna to think about all of you and establishmore connection with you, I would not describe you as unrelatedstrangers. Rather, you are my brother and sisters, just as mostpolitician did.
Lesson16
16. APerson in the World of People: Self and Other, PartI
Keyword: social psychology
BeforeI get into the theory of social psychology, I wanna talk about anindividual difference. I have talked about individual differences,but I want to talk a little bit more an individual difference inour social natures.
Milgram: The game of Six Degrees of Separation
Onegood reason for going to Yale is you develop powerfulfriends.
SelfOtherpeoplegroups
self
1. Spotlight effect:
Gilovich have found that you believe that people arenoticing you all the time but they aren’t. They are busing noticingthemselves.
2. The Transparency effect:
Peopleare actually good at lying.
Thisis that we believe that we’re more transparent than weare.
3. Asecond social psychological phenomenon is you think you’reterrific. People will view themselves better than average. This hasbeen called the “Lake Wobegon effect”.
Theself-serving bias: when thing go well, we will credit ourselveswhile things go bad, we tend to blame the situation ormisfortune.
Whatyou do make sense.
4. Cognitive dissonance theory:
Youread the information which already exists in your mind.
Ingeneral, when people devote a lot of energy or money or expense tosomething, they are extraordinarily resistant to having it provenwrong. Soin love, when the couple gets separated, the one who devote a lotwould feel more painful than the one who devote little.
Otherpeople
5. Attributions:
Peopletend to give too much weight to the person or his personality andnot enough weight to the situation. _____the fundamentalattribution error.
Summarize:
1.the enhancement of self
2.the simplification of others.
6. Why we like other people?
1.Proximity. The mere exposureeffect.
2.Similarity.
3.people like good-looking people
Lesson17
17. APerson in the World of People: Self and Other, PartII
Impression formation:
1.First impression matters a lot.
2.We form impressions very fast, veryquickly.
3.Pygmalion effect: If I think you have acharacteristic, then it turns out that as if you do have thecharacteristic. How our expectationsreally matters.
Groups
Stereotypes
Makinggeneralizations is essential to our ability to live.
Positive aspects: stereotypes are often accurate
Negative aspects: they are sometimesinaccurate.For the reasons below:
1.preoccupation
2.Your data may be misleading.
Hereis a moral principle: some people insist that even though somestereotypes are correct, it is still immoral to apply them in dayto day life. Butthe problem is there are some stereotypes we do need to apply indaily life.
Stereotype threat:
Publicstereotypes
Private stereotypes: what you really think, but you don’ttell people
Unconscious stereotypes
Mysteries
1.sleeping
4stages：transition period
REM sleep (rapid eye movement sleep)
2kinds of sleep:
1、Slow-wavesleep or quiet sleep: hard to be awakened
2、REMsleep: your brain is active as you awake. Men get erections. Lotsof dreams.
Dreams
1、Are we living in the real world or that it is justa big dream?
2、We do all sorts of things in dream, are theysin?
A: You can’t usually be immoral in a dream.
Distinction between real dream and sleepthought.
Everybody dreams, 3 to 4 times one night, but dreams fadeaway quickly.
Whatdo people dream?
Mostpeople dream about bad dreams, but not nightmares.
Bechased ranked top of all dreams.
Whatare dreams for?
2.laughter
1.Why we laugh?
2.It is a universal trait of humankind.
3.Laughter is social and communicative. we laughloud. To laugh loud is to communicate with other people.
4.Laughter is contagious.
5.Laughter is associated with mockattack.
6.Tragedy is I cut off my finger. Comedy is when youfall in an open sewer and die.
7.To sum up, ingredients of humor is there has to bea target who experiences some harm. It could enemy, it could befriends, and it could yourself.
8.But the harm shouldn’t be so serious.
9.Laughter comes in some level ofsurprise.
Lesson18
18.What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, PartI
Thefirst and the most fundamental question in clinical psychology is“what is abnormality”? Where do we draw theline between normal, healthy, typical behavior?
Criteria
1.Social norm
2.Certain characteristic of the targetperson. Forinstance, gender. Crying means quite differently towards male andfemale.
3.context
3Ds :distress（痛苦）, dysfunction（功能失常）, and deviance(异常)
Asmany as one in four women will have an episode of seriousdepression at some time in her life and about 13% of men will havean episode of serious depression in their life. So, these areextremely common kinds of problems that people experience,particularly at your age.
Depression:
1.The individual has to either show sadness or adiminished interest or pleasure in their usualactivities.
2.Weight and appetite change
3.Sleep disturbances ____insomnia
4.Psychomotor retardation or agitation（精神运动迟缓或激越）
5.Feelings of worthlessness or excessiveguilt.
6.Diminished ability to concentrate orindecisiveness.
Thepeople who got depression stay in this stage for a very long time,but the minimum criterion in the DSM is at least twoweeks.
Mania
两极性异常
他们可以通过非凡的才华将狂躁症转化为非常有用的东西。有一些成功的CEO被认为患有长期的轻微的狂躁症，他们可以连续几天只睡几个小时，他们明显自尊心膨胀、自信。
但大多数情况下，狂躁症非常危险。他们会有大量的性滥交、滥用药物，他们绝对可以害自己和家人破产。
躁郁症：狂躁症停止时，抑郁症发作。这比抑郁症要少见得多，躁郁症的发病率只占人口的1%
严重抑郁症的年龄分布：
24岁这个年龄有15%的人，是最高的，随后开始下降。但在35—44这个年龄段，会随着年龄增大而升高。老年人的发病率其实很低。
抑郁症will influence your physicalhealth：心血管疾病、stroke、immunesystem disease.
Genderdifference in depression:
Before13, boys and girls have relatively similar levels ofdepression.
但在青春期开始后，女生的抑郁症发病率明显上升，男生持平或者下降。当他们长到18或者20岁时，女孩和男孩的发病率几乎达到2:1。
认知行为理论和疗法，人际关系理论和疗法
1、基因：很明显情绪和基因有关
2、大脑区域——前额皮质层
后面的没听懂。。。。。
Lesson19
19.What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, PartII
What’sthe line between normal and abnormal?
Whenwe label somebody as mentally ill this is not a medical decision.It’s rather a social decision designed to ostracize people whodeviate from society’s norms.
But insome serious sense, mentally illness is as much a disease as cancerand it should be thought of in the same way. It would damage yourbody; disable your function such as creativity, productivity and soon.
About1% of the world’s population suffers from schizophrenia(精神分裂症), and this is the most common reason for being ina mental hospital and the reason for that is because of howterrible an illness it is.
Somepeople think schizophrenia refers to having multiple personalitieswhich is incorrect. A multiple personality disorder is an entirelydifferent disorder. What people with schizophrenia have is aproblem with relating to reality.
Thereare five main symptoms ofschizophrenia. Four of them are the positive symptoms, meaningthings that you do, one symptom that you don’t have.
1.Hallucination（幻觉）. The most typical hallucinations areauditory.
2.Delusion(错觉): it’s a belief that you should have. What can bedefined as hallucination and what can be defined as delusion isquite controversial. They often tend tobelieve they are famous people. One theme of delusion is what’scalled “ideas of reference”(牵连观念). An idea of reference is you think that there are allsorts of things happening that revolve around you. You hear peoplewhispering and you think they are talking aboutyou.
3.There is disorganized speech.
4.And sometimes there is disorganized behaviortoo.
5.Absence of normal thought or emotion. They may notcare about anything.
Thereare five different subtypes ofschizophrenia, but I’m going to focus on the three majorones.
1.Paranoid schizophrenia 偏执型精神分裂症患者. They believe others are spying andplotting against them. They often believe that other people arejealous of them.
2.The catatonic schizophrenia 紧张型精神分裂症患者are unresponsive to theirsurroundings.
3.The disorganized schizophrenia 瓦解型精神分裂症患者 are maybe what you most think of when youthink of somebody who is insane.
It’shard to pin down what exactly the root ofthese diseases. But a very general summary is that there isa problem, an inability to put together your thoughts andperceptions, to sequence them and coordinate them, to impose alogical structure and a reasonable realistic temporal sequence onyour experience.
Genetic againplay a very important role in schizophrenia, but whether or not youbecome schizophrenia depends on what happens in your environment.
There’s some recent research that ties schizophrenia to thepossibility of toxoplasmosis（弓形虫）, which is a disorder carried by cat feces.
Adifferent sort of trigger is stressful familyenvironments.
Lessindustrialized countries have a better rate of recovery fromschizophrenia than industrialized countries and nobody knowswhy.
Anxiety disorders
1.Generalized anxiety disorders. 广泛性焦虑症 It does seem to have its possible roots insome sort of childhood trauma(童年创伤). Because you arehyper-vigilant.
2.phobias 恐惧症.
3.compulsive disorder强迫症. Checking and washing.If youdevelop compulsive disorder, you might find yourself being curedsimply with medicines.
Somedisorders are “comorbid” 并存疾病. So, if you have a severe depression for instance, you mayalso have an anxiety disorder.
Q: Arepeople with schizophrenia dangerous?
A: Asa rule statistically, it tends to be not the case. They tend to bemore likely victims than harmful. They tend to be fairlyhelpless.
Dissociative disorders 解离症
Whatpeople mean by that is literally a dissociation ofmemory.
Thereare three different types:
1.dissociative amnesia 解离性失忆症:
2.dissociative fugue 解离性漫游症:
3.dissociative identity disorder 解离性人格障碍: so people, from the philosopher DanDennett to the psychologist Judith Harris have pointed out thatwe’re different selves in different situations. We can consciouslyplay act the different selves but we could just shift personalitiesdepending on whether we are with our friends or our family or withstrangers. The claim is that dissociative identity disorder howeverdramatic it looks might merely be an extended version of this wherepeople as well are to some extent play acting to make theirtherapist and doctors happy.
Narcissistic personality disorder 自恋型人格障碍
Avoidant personality disorder 逃避型人格障碍
Dependent 依赖型
Histrionic 表演型
Borderline 边缘型
Paranoid personality disorder 偏执型人格障碍 you’re just – to a greater extent thannormal. You think other people are against you and plotting againstyou.
Antisocial personality disorder. 反社会人格。
Thesuccessful ones, are the ones that run the world that excel inevery field because they are successful enough that they don’t looklike psychopaths精神变态者. They have no conscience, no compassion, love,loyalty. They are cold-blooded and ambitious but they don’t goaround making this so obvious.
Does therapy work?
Lesson 20
20. TheGood Life: Happiness
Therapy by andlarge works. We can not cure these diseases, but we can often makethem better.
安慰剂效应：即使药物无效，光是服用药物这种行为，就可能有助于减轻症状
Happiness:
Mostpsychology focuses on misery.
Positive Psychology
1.Marty Seligman 马丁 塞里格曼is the pioneer of positive psychology.He’s written an excellent book called 《Authentic Happiness》.
2.Jonathan Haidt
3.《Nettle》
4.Dan Gilbert’s 《Stumbling on Happiness》
How happy you are?
Itturns out that most people think they are happier than theaverage.
There’s the Lake Wobegon effect (the tendency of takingeverything above the average) with happiness.
Happiness vary in different people
1.Happiness doesn’tchange as much as you think. Your happiness is not sensitiveto what happens in your environment as you might think itis.
2.There are some geneticdetermination, not entirely but some, in how happy youare.
3.We think these things would have profound effectson our happiness but they need not and they oftendon’t.“Affectiveforecasting”幸福感预测
4.The reason lie in weadapt, we get used to it. But there are exceptions: the effects of cosmeticsurgery整形手术. It makes people happier and stays in happier.And one of the explanations of this is how we look is veryimportant to us.
5.How do you deal with the fact that everything you aspireto, once you get it you’ll be used to it and it will lose itsvalue?One answer is possession is not the key to happiness. From there,you have two alternatives, one is endless novelty. Then there isthe old guy alternative ____give up chasing the whole happinessthing and then seek out more substantial goods like friends andfamily and long-term projects.
6.Happiness is relative.Your happiness depends on your relative circumstance as long as youare not desperately poor. Your role in a hierarchy plays asignificant effect on your level of happiness.
7.Ending reallymatters. It turns out that if you want to give people a goodmemory, or a less bad memory, of a horrible event, topping them offwith some mild pain will do the trick.
So Iwant to close this course by emphasize two themes.
1.There are some very basic questions about the mindthat nobody knows the answer to yet. We know the brain is thesource of mental life but we don’t have any understanding at allabout how exactly this happens, about how a physical object, a lumpof meat, can give rise to conscious experience. We know that abouthalf of the variants in personality, about half the differencesbetween people are due to genetic factors. 但我们不知道如何解释另一半。应该是由于经历不同，但我们不能很好解释是何种经历，让一个人很爱冒险，而另一个很保守，一个很刻薄，一个很知足，我们十分了解社交影响，它能使一个人对其他人做出可怕的举动，但我们无法回答更难的问题。为什么有些人能不受它影响。为什么有人做好事，甚至是英雄举动，无论他们身陷何种处境。所以还要做很多研究，这是一个令人激动的领域。因为我们需要了解的东西还有很多。
2.我们最终会运用各种手段，解答这些问题和更多问题，我们这学期讨论过，可以用系统的科学理论，演变的、神经病学的、发展的、计算的，然后通过实验和观察法来验证，也就是说最终我们最重要最私密的部分，我们的信仰、情绪、决断能力，甚至连是非观都能通过系统的以及可验证的科学假设来解释。
说实话，有人觉得那很恐怖，有些人认为，对思想的科学研究会抹杀掉人的特殊性，在某种程度上削弱了我们。我不同意。如果说，我在这门课上想说服你们什么的话，就是你越是研究思想，研究它科学的运作模式，你就越会欣赏它的复杂、独特和美丽。
课堂笔记后记：
从最开始贴出《《耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论》听课笔记（一）》
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4a8ed87b0100oo59.html
到今天听完所有的课程，跨越了整整一个春夏秋冬的变换。一个人懒散如我，不太会在很短的时间内发起敢死冲锋，一举拿下一座孤悬城堡。若非外力紧逼，往往随性而为，想到了，拿出来看看，又莫名地被一些琐事打断，深深地沉入海底。若不说的那么文艺，就只能用三个字形容——拖延症。
写笔记并不为了什么，习惯而已。留下些痕迹，才感到自己活过，若干年后翻出来看看，我才知道头脑中那些飘渺着的模糊记忆，原来真实存在过，原来我不是上帝的梦一场。
笔记并无特别，更无甚学术价值，不过是老师的原话摘录罢了，且取舍与否，全凭我这个非专业人士的喜好，有时懒了，便错过了些许金言，所以不必认真对待。之所以这样说，是因为以前有不少陌生网友转载了这份笔记（尽管我不知道他们看了没有，八成没有），我可不想闭人耳目，误人心智，像一些媒体一样。当然啦，大家要是觉得还不错，有钱的捧个钱场，没钱的也捧个钱场，哈哈~~
笔记的后半部分有一些是用英文记录的，我觉得我挺脑残，密密麻麻的英文字母，看得我自己都有密集恐惧症，这样的东西肯定没人看，不过我本来也没打算给人看。用英文写，纯粹是为了练练，谁让我学了十几年英语了还这破水平，活该。
做完笔记的最大感受是——我好像没做过笔记。不记得那谁谁谁说的来着，一遍等于没有。 我不能再同意了。一份笔记的作用——如果有的话——无非是重复地再现你所学过的东西，而重复，是所有人成就伟大的关键之一。不管有空没空，只要还对心理学有些兴趣，就该常回来看看。
拖了一年才完成，也够牛逼的。
若要为自己辩解，我会说，拖延的好处在于，我感到一件东西，尽管不在一起，亦不常联系，却陪伴我一起，消磨了好多光阴。
2013-2-16于家中
