爱华网专八人文知识精讲(15)：美国概述
一、气候
1. A humid continental climate is found in the north-easternpart of the country.
美国东北部为湿润的大陆性气候。
2. In the south-eastern United States you can find ahumidsubtropical climate.
东南部则是湿润的亚热带气候。
3. The Pacific northwest is favored with a maritimeclimate.
太平洋西北岸为海洋性气候。
4. The southern part of the Pacific coast in California has aMediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and moistwinters.
加州太平洋沿岸南部是地中海式气候，夏天干燥炎热，冬天潮湿多雨。
5. Many factors besides latitude influence the climate in theUnited States. Perhaps the most important forces are the Atlanticand Pacific oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes.
除了海拔之外，许多因素影响着美国的气候，其中最主要的因素为：太平洋，大西洋，墨西哥湾，五大湖。
二、地理城市
1.Traditionally from the east to the west the United States canbe divided into seven geographical regions.
美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。
2.New England is made up of six states of the Northeast .Becauseof its stony soil it is not noted for its agriculture. Dairying isthe most inportant farm activity. New Englishis also well-known forits position in education, Many famous universities and collegessuch as Yale, Harvard, the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology(MIT) are located here.
新英格兰由美国东北部六个州组成，由于土壤多石，不利于农业生产，乳制品业是最重要的农业活动。许多重点大学如耶鲁大学，哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都坐落于此。
3.Chicago, the largest and busiest port on the Great Lakes, isthe largest industral and commercial center of the area.
芝加哥是五大湖最大最忙的港口，也是该地区最大的工商业中心。
4.Detroit is known as the automobile capital of the world. Omahais known as the agricultural capital of the United states.
底特律被称作“世界汽车之都”。奥马哈被称作“美国农业之都”。
5.Dry farming, irrigation farming, and the cattle and sheepherding are the main ativities of the Great Plains of the AmericanWest.
旱地农业，灌溉农业和畜牧业是美国西部大平原地区的主要活动。
6.Colorado has been called the steel city of the west. Denver isthe largest city of the Great Plains.
科罗拉多市被称作“西部钢城”。丹佛市是大平原地区最大的城市。
7.the largest groups of Native Americans are found on theColorado Plateau.
美国最大的土著群落位于科罗拉多高原。
8.Mmauna Loa, the world's largest volcano, is located on Haiwaiiand erupts from time to time. Suger cane and pineapples areHaiwaii's main crops.Tourism is Haiwaii's most importantindustry.
莫纳洛阿火山是世界最大活火山，位于夏威夷，不时喷发。甘蔗和菠罗是夏威夷的两大作物，旅游业是夏威夷最重要的产业。
9.Honolulu is the capital of Haiwaii and Juneau is the capitalof Alaska.
火奴鲁鲁是夏威夷的首府，朱诺是阿拉斯加的首府。
三、人口
1.New Englanders were originally knows as Yankees,which came tostand for all American.
新英格兰人最初曾被称作“Yankee”，这一名称后来渐渐指所有的美国人。
2.The Middle Atlantic States have about one fifth of the totalpopulation of the United States.
大西洋中部各州的人口占美国总人口的1/5。
3.The soil is rich, the rain usually pientiful and the growingseason long, these factors make the Midwest America's mostimportant agricultural area. It is also a major manufacturingregion and the nation's leading center of heavy industry.
中西部地区土壤肥沃，雨量充沛，生长季节较长，是美国最重要的农业区，也是主要的制造业区和全国的重工业中心。
Part 1. Colonial America 殖民地时期的美国文学
Thomas Paine 托马斯·潘恩(1737-1809)：
The Case of the Officers of Excise税务员问题；
Common Sense常识；
American Crisis美国危机；
Rights of Man:Downfall of Despotism人的权利：专制体制的崩溃；
The Age of Reason理性时代
Philip Freneau 菲利普·弗伦诺(1752-1832)：
The Rising Glory of America蒸蒸日上的美洲；
The British Prison Ship英国囚船；
To the Memory of the Brave Americans纪念美国勇士；
The Wild Honeysuckle野生的金银花；
The Indian Burying Ground印第安人殡葬地
Jonathan Edwards 乔纳森·爱德华(1702—1758)：
The Freedom of the Will自由意志论；
The Great Doctrine of Original Sin defended伟哉原罪论辩；
The Nature of True Virtue 真美德的性质
Benjamin Franklin 本杰明·富兰克林(1706-1790):
A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a PaperMoney；
Poor Richard’s Almanack穷查理历书；
The Way to Wealth致富之道；
The Autobiography自传
Part 2. American Romanticism 美国浪漫主义文学
Washington Irving 华盛顿·欧文(1783-1859)：
A History of New York纽约的历史——美国人写的第一部诙谐文学杰作；
The SketchBook见闻札记；
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow睡谷的传说——使之成为美国第一个获得国际声誉的作家；
Bracebridge Hall布雷斯布里奇田庄；
Talks of Travellers旅客谈；
The Alhambra阿尔罕伯拉
James Fenimore Cooper 詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀(1789-1851)：
The Spy间谍；
The Pilot领航者；
The Littlepage Manuscripts利特佩奇的手稿；
Leatherstocking Tales皮裹腿故事集：The Pioneer拓荒者；The Last ofMohicans最后的莫希干人；The Prairie大草原；The Pathfinder探路者；TheDeerslayer杀鹿者
Part 3.New England Transcendentalism 新英格兰超验主义文学
Ralf Waldo Emerson 拉尔夫·沃尔多·爱默生(1803-1882)：
Essays:Nature散文集：论自然——新英格兰超验主义者的宣言书；
The American Scholar论美国学者；
Divinity:TheOversoul论超灵；
Self-reliance论自立；
The Transcendentalist超验主义者；
Representative Men代表人物；
English Traits英国人的特征；
School Address神学院演说；
Concord Hymn康考德颂；
The Rhodo杜鹃花；The Humble Bee野蜂；
Days日子——首开自由诗之先河
Henry David Threau 亨利·大卫·梭罗(1817-1862)：
Wadden, or Life in the Woods瓦尔登湖，或林中生活；
Resistance to Civil Government/Civil Disobedience论公民的不服从；
A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers在康科德河与梅里麦克河上一周
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 亨利·沃兹沃思·朗费罗(1807-1882)：
The Song of Hiawatha海华沙之歌——美国人写的第一部印第安人史诗；
Voices of the Night夜吟；
Ballads and Other Poems民谣及其他诗；
Belfry of Bruges and OtherPoems布鲁茨的钟楼及其他诗；
Tales of a Wayside Inn路边客栈的故事：AnApril Day四月的一天；A Psalm ofLife人生礼物；Paul Revere’s Ride保罗·里维尔的夜奔；Evangeline伊凡吉琳；The Courtshipof Miles Standish迈尔斯·斯坦迪什的求婚；Poems on Slavery奴役篇
Nathaniel Hawthorne 纳撒尼尔·霍桑(1804-1864)：
Twice-told Tales尽人皆知的故事；
Mosses from an Old Manse古屋青苔：Young Goodman Brown年轻的古德曼·布朗；TheScarlet Letter红字；The House of the Seven Gables有七个尖角阁的房子；TheBlithedale Romance福谷传奇；The Marble Faun玉石雕像
Herman Melville 赫尔曼·梅尔维尔(1819-1891)：
Moby Dick/The White Whale莫比·迪克/白鲸；
Typee泰比；
Omoo奥穆；
Mardi玛地；
Redburn雷得本；
White Jacket白外衣；
Pierre皮尔埃；
Piazza广场故事；
Billy Budd比利·巴德
Walt Whitman 沃尔特·惠特曼(1819-1892)：
Leaves of Grass草叶集：Song of the Broad-Axe阔斧之歌；I hear AmericaSinging我听见美洲在歌唱；When Lilacs Lost in the DooryardBloom’d小院丁香花开时；Democratic Vistas民主的前景；The Tramp and StrikeQuestion流浪汉和罢工问题；Song ofMyself自我之歌
Emily Dickinson 埃米莉·迪金森(1830-1886)：
The Poems of Emily Dichenson埃米莉·迪金森诗集
Edgar Allan Poe 埃德加·爱伦·坡(1809-1849)：
Tales of the Grotesque andArabesque怪诞奇异故事集；
Tales故事集；
The Fall of the House of Usher厄舍古屋的倒塌；
Ligeia莱琪儿；
Annabel Lee安娜贝尔·李——歌特风格；首开近代侦探小说先河，又是法国象征主义运动的源头；
Tamerlane and Other Poems帖木儿和其他诗；
The Raven and Other Poems乌鸦及其他诗：The Raven乌鸦；The City in theSea海城；Israfel 伊斯拉菲尔；To Hellen致海伦
Harriet Beecher Stowe哈丽特·比彻·斯托(1811-1896)：
Uncle Tom’s Cabin汤姆叔叔的小屋；
A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp德雷德阴暗大沼地的故事片；
The Minister’s Wooing牧师的求婚；
The Pearl of Orr’s Island奥尔岛的珍珠；
Oldtown Folks老城的人们
Part 4. The age of Realism 现实主义文学
William Dean Howells 威廉·狄恩·豪威尔斯(1837-1920)：
The Rise of Silas Lapham赛拉斯·拉帕姆的发迹；
A Modern Instance现代婚姻；
AHazard of Now Fortunes时来运转；
A Traveller from Altruia从利他国来的旅客；
Through the Eye of the Needle透过针眼——乌托邦小说；
Novel-Writing and Novel-Reading小说创作与小说阅读
Henry James 享利·詹姆斯(1843-1916)：
小说：
Daisy Miller戴茜·米勒；
The Portrait of a Lady贵妇人画像；
The Bostonians波士顿人；
The Real Thing and Other Tales真货色及其他故事；
The Wings of the Dove鸽翼；
The Ambassadors大使；
The Golden Bowl金碗
评论集：
French Poets and Novelists法国诗人和小说家；
Hawthorne霍桑；
Partial Portraits不完全的画像；
Notes and Reviews札记与评论；
Art of Fiction and Other Essays小说艺术
Part 5. Local Colorism 本地主义文学
Mark Twain(Samuel Langhorne Clemens)马克·吐温(1835-1910)——美国文学的一大里程碑：
The Celebrated Jumping Frog of CalaverasCounty加拉维拉县有名的跳蛙；
The Innocent’s Abroad傻瓜出国记；
The Gilded Age镀金时代；
The Adventures of TomSawyer汤姆·索耶历险记；
The Prince and the Pauper王子与贫儿；
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn哈克贝利·费恩历险记；
A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court亚瑟王宫中的美国佬；
TheTragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson傻瓜威尔逊；
Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc冉·达克；
The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg败坏哈德莱堡的人；
How to Tell a Story怎样讲故事——对美国早期幽默文学的总结
Part 6. American Naturalism 自然主义文学
Stephen Crane 斯蒂芬·克莱恩(1871-1900)：
Maggie: A Girl of theStreets街头女郎梅姬——美国文学史上首次站在同情立场上描写受辱妇女的悲惨命运；
The Red Badge of Courage红色英勇勋章；
The Open Boat小划子；
The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky新娘来到黄天镇
Frank Norris 弗兰克·诺里斯(1870-1902)：
Moran of the Lady Letty茱蒂夫人号上的莫兰；
Mc-Teague麦克提格；
The Epic of the Wheat小麦诗史；
A Deal in Wheat and Other Stories of the Old and NewWest小麦交易所及其他新老西部故事
Theodore Dreiser 西奥多·德莱塞(1871-1945)：
Sister Carrie嘉莉妹妹；
Jennie Gerhardt珍妮姑娘；
Trilogy of Desire欲望三部曲：Financer金融家；The Titan巨人；The Stoic斯多葛；
An American Tragedy美国的悲剧——被称为美国最伟大的小说；
Nigger Jeff黑人杰弗
Edwin Arlington Robinson 鲁宾逊(1869-1935)：
Captain Craig克雷格上尉——诗体小说；
The Town Down the River河上的城镇；
The Man Against the Sky衬托着天空的人
Avon’s Harvest沃冯的收成
Collected Poems诗集
Jack London 杰克·伦敦(1876-1916)：
The Son of the Wolf狼之子；
The Call of the Wild野性的呼唤；
The Sea-wolf海狼；
White Fang白牙；
The People of the Abyss深渊中的人们；
The Iron Heel铁蹄；
Marti Eden马丁·伊登；
How I become a Socialist我怎样成为社会党人；
The War of the Classes阶级之间的战争；
What Life Means to Me生命对我意味着什么；
Revolution革命；
Love of Life热爱生命；
The Mexican墨西哥人；
Under the Deck Awings在甲板的天蓬下
Upton Sinclair 厄普顿·辛克莱尔(1878-1968)：
Spring and Harvest春天与收获；
The Jungle屠场——揭发黑幕运动的代表作家；
King Coal 煤炭大王；
Oil石油；
Boston波士顿；
Dragon’s Teeth龙齿
Part 7. The 1920s 20世纪20年代的美国文学
Imagism意象主义：Ezra Pound 艾兹拉·庞德(1885-1972)：
The Spirit of Romance罗曼司精神；
The Anthology DesImagistes意像派诗选；
Cathay华夏——英译中国诗；
Literary Essays文学论；
A Few Don’ts by Imagist意象派戒条；
Personage面具；
Polite Essays文雅集；
The Cantos of Ezra Pound庞德诗章——109首及8首未完成稿
Thomas Stearns Eliot 托马斯·艾略特(1888-1965)：
Prufrock and Other Observations普罗夫洛克；
The Waste Land荒原：TheBurial of the Dead死者的葬礼；A Game of Chess弈棋；TheFire Sermon火诫；Death byWater水边之死；What the Thunder Said雷电之言；
名诗：
Ash Wednesday圣灰星期三；
Four Quarters四个四重奏；
诗剧：
Murder in the Cathedral大教堂谋杀案；
Family Reunion大团圆；
Cocktail Party鸡尾酒会
Wallace Stevens 华莱士·史蒂文斯(1879-1955)：
Harmonium风琴；
The Man With the Blue Guitar弹蓝吉他的人；
Notes Toward a Supreme Fiction关于最高虚构的札记：Peter Quince at theClavier彼得·昆斯弹风琴；Sunday Morning礼拜天早晨；
The Auroras of Autumn秋天的晨曦；
Collected Poems诗集
William Carlos Williams 威廉·卡罗斯·威廉斯(1883-1963)：
Spring andAll春；
The Journey of Love爱的历程；
Pictures from Brueghel布留盖尔的肖像；
Paterson佩特森——5卷长诗；
Asphodal, That Green Flower常青花日光兰——长诗；
Red Wheelbarrow红色手推车；
The Widow’s Lament in Spring寡妇的春怨；
The Sparrow, to My Father麻雀——致父亲；
Proletarian Portrait无产阶级画像
Robert Frest 罗伯特·弗罗斯特(1874-1963)：
A Boy’s Wish少年心愿；
North of Boston波士顿之北：Mending Wall修墙；After Apple-picking摘苹果之后；
Mountain Interval山间；
The Road Not taken没有选择的道路；
West-running Brook西流的溪涧；
A Further Range又一片牧场；
A Witness Tree一株作证的树
Carl Sandburg 卡尔·桑德堡(1878-1967)：
Always the Young Stranger永远是陌生的年轻人；
In Reckless Ecstasy肆无忌惮的狂热；
The Prairie Years草原的年代；
The War Years战争的年代——林肯传记；
The American Songbag美国歌袋；
The People,Yes人民，好；
Honey and Salt蜜与盐；
Corn-huskers辗米机；
Smoke and Steel烟与钢
E Cumings 肯明斯(1894-1962)：
Tulips anddd Chimneys郁金香与烟囱；
The Enormous Room大房间；
XLI Poems诗41首；
Viva万岁；
No, Thanks不，谢谢；
Collected Poems诗集；
Eimi爱米——访苏游记
The Lost Generation迷惘的一代：F Scott Fitzgerald弗朗西斯·菲茨杰拉德(1896-1940)：
The Side of Paradise人间天堂；
The Beautiful and the Damned美丽的和倒霉；
The Great Gatsby了不起的盖茨比；
Tender in the Night夜色温柔；
The Last Tycoon最后的巨头；
短篇小说：
Flappers and Philosophers姑娘们和哲学家们；
Tales of the Jazz爵士时代的故事；
Taps at Reveille早晨的起床号；
The Ice Palace冰宫；
May Days五一节；
The Diamond as Big as the Ritz像里茨饭店那样大的钻石；
Winter Dreams冬天的梦；
The Rich Boy富家子弟；
BabylonRevisted重访巴比伦；
The Crack-up崩溃——自传体文集
“迷惘的一代”代表人物：Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特·海明威(1899-1961) ：
In Our Time在我们的年代里；
The Torrents of Spring春潮；
The Sun Also Rises太阳照样升起；
Farewell to Arms永别了，武器；
For Whom the Bell Tolls丧钟为谁而鸣；
短篇小说：
Men Without Women没有女人的男人；
The Winners Take Notheing胜者无所获；
The Fifth Column and First Forty-nineStories第五纵队与首次发表的四十九个短篇；
政论：
To Have and Have Not贫与富
回忆录：
A Moveable Feast到处逍遥
William Faulkner 威廉·福克纳(1897-1962)：
The Marble Faun云石林神——诗集；
Soldiers'Pay兵饷——小说；
Absalom, Absolam押沙龙，押沙龙——家世小说；
短篇小说：
Dry September干燥的九月；
The Sound and the Fury愤怒与喧嚣；
As I lay dying当我垂死的时候；
Light in August八月之光
Sherwood Anderson 舍伍德·安德森(1876-1941)：
Windy McPherson’s Son饶舌的麦克斐逊的儿子；
Marching Men前进中的人们；
Mid-American Chants美国中部之歌；
Winesburg,Ohio/The Book of the Grotesque俄亥俄州的温斯堡/畸人志；
Poor White穷苦的白人；
Many Marriages多种婚姻；
Dark Laughter阴沉的笑声
The Triumph of the Egg and Other Stories鸡蛋的胜利和其他故事；
Death in the Woods and Other Stories林中之死及其他故事；
I Want to Know Why我想知道为什么
美国第一个获诺贝尔奖获得者：Sinclair Lewis 辛克莱·刘易斯(1885-1951)：
Dur Mr Wrenn我们的雷恩先生；
The Job求职；
The Main Street大街；
Babbitt巴比特；
Arrowsmith艾罗史密斯；
Elmer Gantry艾尔默·甘特里；
Dodsworth多兹沃斯；
It can’t Happen Here事情不会发生在这里；
Kingsblood Royal王孙梦
Villa Sibert Cather 维拉·凯塞(1873-1947)：
O, Pioneers啊，先驱们；
My Antonia我的安东尼亚；
The Professor’s House教授之家；
Death Comes for the Archibishop大主教之死
Thomas Wolfe 托马斯·沃尔夫(1900-1938)：
Look Homeward, Angel天使，望故乡；
Of Time and the River时间与河流；
The Web and the Rock蛛网与岩石；
You Can’t Go Home Again有家归不得；
The Hills Beyond远山——未完成；
短篇小说：
From Death to Morning从死亡到早晨
Part 8. The 1930s 20世纪30年代的美国文学
John Dos Passos 帕索斯(1896-1970)：
The Three Soldiers；
Manhattan Transfer；
District of Columbia哥伦比亚大区：The Adventures of a YoungMan一个年轻人的冒险；Number One第一号；The Grand Design伟大的计划；
Orient Express东方特别快车——游记
John Steinbeck 约翰·斯坦贝克(1902-1966)：
Cup of Gold金杯；
Tortilla Flat煎饼房；
In Dubious Battle胜负未定；
Of Mice and Men鼠和人；
The Grapes of Wrath愤怒的葡萄；
The Moon is Down月亮下去了；
Cannery Row罐头厂街；
The Pearl珍珠；
短篇小说：
The Red Pony小红马
Part 9. Black American Literature 美国黑人文学
Frederick Douglass弗莱德里克·道格拉斯(1817-1895)：
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass anAmericanSlave弗莱德里克·道格拉斯，一个美国黑人的自述
MyBondage and My Freedom我的枷锁与我的自由
The lifeand Time of Frederick Douglass弗莱德里克·道格拉斯的生平与时代
William E.B. Dubois 威廉·艾伯·杜波依斯(1868-1963)：
Souls of Black Folk黑人的灵魂；
The Suppression of the African Slave Trade into theUSA制止非洲奴隶贸易进入美国；
The Philadephia Negro；John Brown；The Black Flame黑色的火焰（三部曲）
James Langston Hughes 詹姆斯·兰斯顿·休斯(1902-1969)：
Mulatto混血儿——剧本；
The Weary Blues疲倦的歌声；
Dear Lovely Death亲爱的死神；
Shakespear in Harlem哈莱姆的莎士比亚；
I Wonder as I Wander我漂泊我思考；
The Best of Simple辛普尔精选
Ralph Ellison 拉尔夫·埃利林(1914-1994)：
长篇小说：
Invisible Man看不见的人；
散文集：
Shadow and Act影子与行动；
Going to the Territory步入文学界
James Baldwin 詹姆斯·鲍德温(1924-1987)：
散文集：
Note of a Native Son土生子的笔记’
Fire Next Time下一次烈火；
No Name in the Street他的名字被遗忘‘
The Devil Finds Work魔鬼找到工作；
小说：
Go Tell it on the Mountain向苍天呼吁’
Giovanni’s Room乔万尼的房间‘
Another Country另一个国度；
Tell Me How Long the Train’s Been Gone告诉我火车已开多久；
IfBeale Street Could Talk假如比尔能说话；
Just Above My Head就在我头上；
短篇小说集：
Going to Meet the Man去见这个人；
剧本：
The Amen Corner阿门角；
Blues for Mister Charley为查理先生唱布鲁斯/黑人怨；
One Day When I was Lost有一天当我迷失的时候/迷路前后
Part 10. American Drama 美国戏剧
Eugene Oneil 尤金·奥尼尔(1888-1953)：
独幕剧：
Bound East to Cardiff东航卡迪夫；
The Long Voyage Home归途迢迢；
The Moon of the Carribbeans加勒比人之月；
多幕剧：
Beyond the Horizon天边外——成名作；
Anna Christie安娜·克里斯蒂；
The Emperor Jones琼斯皇；
The Hairy Ape毛猿；
All the God’s Children Got Wings上帝的儿女都有翅膀；
The Great God Brown大神布朗；
The Strange Interlude奇异的插曲；
Mourning Becomes Electra素娥怨/悲悼；
The Iceman Cometh送冰的人来了；
The Long Days Journey Into Night进入黑夜的漫长旅程/日长路远夜常深沉
J D Salinger 杰罗姆·大卫·塞林格(1919- )：
短篇小说：
The YoungFolks年轻人；
短篇小说集：
Nine Stories故事九篇；
中篇小说：
Franny弗兰尼；
Zooey卓埃；
Raise High the Roof Beam,Carpenters木匠们，把屋梁升高；
Seymour:An Introduction西摩其人；
长篇小说：
The Cather in the Rye麦田里的守望者
Tennessee William 田纳西·威廉斯(1911-1983)：
American Blues美国的布鲁斯；
Battle of Angels天使的战斗；
The Glass Menagerie玻璃动物园；
The Streetcar Named Desire欲望号街车；
Cat on a Hot Tin Roof热铁皮屋顶上的猫；
The Night of The Iguana鬣蜥之夜；
Summer and Smoke夏与烟；
The Rose Tattoo玫瑰纹；
Sweet Bird of Yout可爱的青春鸟
Arthur Miller 阿瑟·米勒(1915- )：
Situation Normal情况正常；
The Man Who Had All the Luck吉星高照的人；
All My Sons都是我的儿子；
The Death of a Salesman推销员之死；
The Crucible严峻的考验/萨姆勒的女巫；
A View from the Bridge桥头眺望；
A Memory of Two Mondays两个星期一的回忆；
After the Fall堕落之后；
Incident at Vichy维希事件；
The Price代价；
The Creation ofthe World and Other Business创世及其他；
The Archbishop’s Ceiling大主教的天花板；
The American Clock美国时钟
Edward Albee 爱德华·阿尔比(1928- )：
The Zoo Story动物园的故事；
The Death of Bessie Smith贝西·史密斯之死；
The Sandbox沙箱；
The American Dream美国梦；
Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?谁害怕弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫；
Tiny Alice小爱丽丝；
A Delicate Balance脆弱的羊群；
Seascape海景；
The Lady from Dubuque来自杜布克的女人；
The Man With Three Arms三臂人
Part 11. The Post-War Scene 战后美国文学
Saul Bellow索尔·贝娄(1915- )：
长篇小说：
Dangling Man晃来晃去/挂起来的人；
The Victim受害者；
The Adventure of Augie March奥基·马奇历险记；
Henderson the Rain King雨王汉德逊；
Herzog赫索格；
MrSummlar’s Planet塞姆勒先生的行星；
Humboldt’s Gift洪堡的礼物；
中篇小说：
Seize the Day且乐今朝
The Beaten Generation垮掉的一代：Norman Mailer诺曼·米勒(1923- )：
Barbary Shore巴巴里海滨；
The Deer Park廘苑；
An American Dream一场美国梦；
The White Negro白色黑人；
Advertisement for Myself为自己做广告；
Why Are We inVietnam?我们为什么要去越南;
The Executioner’s Song刽子手之歌;
The Armies of theNight夜色幕下的大军——历史小说；
New Journalism新新闻报道
Joseph Heller 约瑟夫·海勒(1923- )：
长篇小说：
Catch-22第二十二条军规；
Something Happened出了毛病；
As Good asGold像高尔德一样好；
剧本：
We Bombed in New Haven我们轰炸纽黑文；
Catch-22: Clevinger’s Trial克莱文杰受审——据Catch-22第八章
John Barth 约翰·巴思(1930- )：
长篇小说：
The Floating Opera漂浮的歌剧；
The End of the Road穷途末路；
The Sot-weed Factor烟草代理商；
Letters书信集；
Giles Goat-boy山羊孩子贾尔斯；
Lost in the Funhouse迷失在开心馆里；
Chimera客迈拉；
Sabbatical学院的轮休假；
The Friday Book:Essays and Other Nonfictions星期五的书：论文及其他非小说
Postmodernism后现代主义：Thomas Pynchon 托马斯·品钦(1937- )：
Geography of a Horse Dreamer马上梦者的地理；
Angel City天使城；
The Tooth ofCrime罪恶的牙齿；
Family家庭：Curse of the Starving Class饥饿阶级的诅咒；BuriedChild被埋葬的孩子；TrueWest真正的西部；
Fool for Love情痴；
A Lie of the Mind心灵的谎言；
Paris/Texas德州的巴黎
专八人文知识精讲(14)：美国地理
1.Alaska and Hawaii are the two newest states in America. Alaskanorthwestern Canada, and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.
阿拉斯加和夏威夷是最近加入美国的两个新州。阿拉斯加在加拿大的西北部，夏威夷位于太平洋中部。
2.The U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometres. Itis the fourth largest country in the world in size afterRussia,Canada and China.
就面积而言，美国是世界第四大国，国土面积为930万平方公里。
3.Of all states of American, Alaska is the lagest in area andRhode Island thesmallest. But on the mainland Texas is the largestsate of the country.
所有州中，阿拉斯加是面积最大的州，罗得岛最小，在美国本土，最大的州是得克萨斯州。
4.The Rockies, the backbone of the North American Continent, isalso known as the Continental Divide.
落基山脉是北美大陆的脊梁，也被成为大陆分水岭。
5.The two main mountain ranges in American are the Appalachianmountainsand the Rocky mountains. The Appalachians run slightlyfrom the northeast to southwest and the Rocky mountains runslightly from the northwest to southeast.
阿巴拉契亚山脉和落基山脉是美国的两座大山脉。阿巴拉契亚山脉的走向是从东北到西南，落基山脉则是从西北到东南。
6.The Mississippi River is the largest river in American, over6000 kilometers.The Mississippi has been called "father ofwaters"or "old man river".
密西西比河是美国最长河流，长度超过6000公里。被称作"众水之父"或"老人河"。
7.The Ohio river has been called the American Ruhr, As inGermany, the area along the river is rich in valuable deposits ofhigh-grade coking coal and is wellknown for its steel industry.Theriver provides cheap water transportation for rawmaterials.
俄亥俄河被称作美国的鲁尔河，就像德国一样，沿河有丰富的高品千周的焦煤，并且因其钢铁而著名。另外，该河还为原材料提供了廉价的水路运输。
8.On the Pacific side there are two great rivers: the Coloradoin the south and the Columbia, which rises in Canada.
太平洋沿岸有两大河：南部的科罗拉多河，以及发源于加拿大的哥伦比亚河。
9.The Rio Grande River forms a natural boundary between Mexicoand the United States.
格兰德河是美国和墨西哥之间的天然界河。
10.the most important lakes in the United States are the GreatLakes. They are Lake Superior, which is the largest fresh waterlake in the world, Lake Michigan, the only entirely in the U.S.,Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.They are located betweenCanada and the United States except Lake Michigan.
美国最重要的湖泊是五大湖：苏必利尔湖（世界上最大的淡水湖），密歇根湖（五大湖中唯一完全位于美国境内的），休伦湖，伊利湖和安大略湖。除了密歇根湖，其他四大湖都位于美国和加拿大的国境线上。
专八人文知识精讲（2）英国地理特征
II. Geographical Features
英国的地理特征
1.Geographical position of Britain:
英国的地理位置：
Britainis an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies inthe North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It isseparated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in thesouth and the North Sea in the east.
英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。
2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and theeast and southeast are mostly lowlands.
英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。
III.Riversand Lakes
河流与湖泊
Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).
本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。
Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).
塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。
ThamesRiver is the second longest and most important river inBritain. (336km).
泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。
Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located inNorthern Ireland. (396 square kilometres).
讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。
River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.
克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。
Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m）
斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1,085米。
专八人文知识（3） 英国气候
IV. Climate
气候
1. Britain's favorable climate
英国有利的气候条件：
Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold andsummers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfallthroughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a smallrange.
英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气温变化幅度小。
2.The factors that influence the climate in Britain:
影响英国气候的因素：
1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonaldifferences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off insummer;
环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节温差的作用；
2)The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow overthe country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winterand keeping the temperatures moderate;
一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气，使气温适宜；
3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of theBritish Isles and warms them.
北大西洋暖流流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。
3.Rainfall
降雨量：
Britainhas a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year.The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is awater surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in thesouth and east.
英国专八人文知识精讲（4）英国人口
V. The People
人口
1.population distribution
人口分布：
Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is veryunevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10%is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of theEnglish (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish(2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).
英国人口约5700万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人（2.4%）、北爱尔兰人（1.8%）和其他民族居民（2.8%）。
2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots,Welsh and Irish:
英伦三岛民族的祖先：
The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welshand Irish are Celts.
英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁-萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人的祖先属于凯尔特人。
3.The difference in character
全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。 英国北部、西部雨量较多，但是南部、东部有所缺乏。
个性差别：
The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are musiclovers and are proud of their past.
威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。
The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people,and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.
苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。
The Irish are charm and vivacity.
爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。
4.The difference in speech between southern England and northernEngland:
英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：
Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; Innorthern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that ofsouthern England.
南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。
5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in thisway:
威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力：
Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance andpoetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is theNational Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held inWelsh poetry, music, singing and art.
一年中他们有称之为"艺术年会"的歌唱、舞蹈、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛。在这些场合会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、歌唱和艺术比赛。
6.The main problem in Northern Ireland:
北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：
The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group,and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political andeconomic opportunities.
作为社会主体的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。
7.Immigrants:
移民：
About three million have come to Britain to live and find worksince World War II.
自从二战以来约有三百万人来到英国生活和工作。
专八人文知识精讲（5）英国的起源
The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)
英国的起源（公元前5000年-1066年）
I.Early Settlers (5000BC-55BC)
早期的居民（公元前5000年-公元前55年）
1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.
人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。
2．At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas nowknow as Holland and Rhineland.
约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。
3．The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.
约公元前700年，凯尔特人来到不列颠岛。
4．The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.
凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。
The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.
第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。
The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.
第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞人的抵达。
The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.
第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。
II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)
罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年-410年）
1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britaintwice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully.For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation,though it was never a total occupation.
有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军尤里乌斯·恺撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳迪乌斯才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。
2. Roman's influence on Britain.
罗马人对英国的影响
The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings.They make good use of Britain's natural resources. They alsobrought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.
罗马人修建了许多城镇，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到了英国。
3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain.
罗马对英国影响有限的原因。
First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject peopleof slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romansand Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on thelanguage or culture of ordinary Britons.
首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四个世纪里罗马人从不和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。
III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)
盎格鲁-撒克逊人（公元446-871年）
1．Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.
英国种族的基础：盎格鲁-撒克逊人
In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons,and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.
五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。
The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britainfirst. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then theSaxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, establishedtheir kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5thcentury to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half ofthe 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germanyand were to give their name to the English people, settled in EastAnglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms ofKent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbriahave been given the name of Heptarchy.
居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵达不列颠。449年，一位朱特族长成为了肯特的国王。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。
2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.
早期盎格鲁-撒克逊人改信基督教。
The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain.Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall,Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St.Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew's Monastery in Rome, to Englandto convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St.Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He wasremarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, butthe conversion of the common people was largely due to themissionary activities of the monks in the north.
盎格鲁-撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰的凯尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597年，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁非常成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。
3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the Englishstate.
早期盎格鲁-撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。
The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state.Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courtsand shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law.Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming systemwhich continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also establishedthe manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council ormeeting of the wisemen）to advise the king, the basis of the PrivyCouncil which still exists today.
盎格鲁-撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。
专八人文知识精讲（6）英国的形成
The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)
英国的形成（公元1066-1381）
I. Norman Rule (1066-1381)
诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）
1. William's Rule （1066-1087）
威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）
Under William, the feudal system in England was completelyestablished.
在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。
According to this system, the King owned all the landpersonally. William gave his barons large estates in England inreturn for a promise of military service and a proportion of theland's produce. These estates were scattered far and wide over thecountry, so that those who held them could not easily combine torebel the king. The barons, who had become William'stenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knightsand freemen, also in return for goods and services. At the bottomof the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. One peculiarfeature of the feudal system of England was that all landownersmust take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord,but also to the king.
根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。在封建等级底层的是农奴。英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。
2. King Henry II and his reforms
亨利二世国王和他的改革
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. Heforced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants ofRoyal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished manycastles built in Stephen's time; strengthened and widened thepowers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militiacomposed of English freemen.
亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended itsjudicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits andappointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before theintermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During hisreign, a common law was gradually established in place of theprevious laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jurysystem to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, heshifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses fromthe Bishop's court to the King's court.
亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。
II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
《大宪章》的内容及意义
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press ofthe barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its importantprovisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without theapproval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested,imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church shouldpossess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4)London and other towns should retain their traditional rights andprivileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measuresthroughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long beenpopularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was astatement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crownand the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and alimitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the GreatCharter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping themwithin the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年迫于封建贵族的压力而签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：(1)未经大议会同意，不得征税；(2)只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4）伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；(5)全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。
III.The origins of the English Parliament
英国议会的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the currentBritish Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the GreatCouncil, together with two knights from each county and twocitizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lordsand the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. Therewere no elections or parties. And the most important part ofParliament was the House of Lords.
大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各郡有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。
专八人文知识精讲（7）向现代英国的过渡
Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)
向现代英国的过渡
I.Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)
向现代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年)
The Wars of Rose
玫瑰战争
The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between theHouse of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York,symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendantof Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and putht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, Englishfeudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility wasmuch weakened.
玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。
II. The English Reformation
英国的宗教改革
Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform ofthe church. There were three main causes: a desire for change andreform in the church had been growing for many years and now,encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believedits time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy wereresented; and Henry needed money.
最重要的是，亨利八世促成了教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。
The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended infreedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine ofAragon but the Pope refused. Henry's reforms was to get rid of theEnglish Church's connection with the Pope, and to make anindependent Church of England. He made this break with Romegradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England'smonasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Popethan to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of successionof 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible.He established the church of England as the national church of thecountry, and he made himself the supreme head of the church ofEngland.
改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间英国教会逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。亨利解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获"英格兰教会最高首脑"之称号。
Henry VIII's reform stressed the power of the monarch andcertainly strengthened Henry's position; Parliament had never donesuch a long and important piece of work before, its importance grewas a result. His attack on the Pope's power encouraged many criticsof abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away formCatholicism towards protestaintism.
改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会。英国从此从天主教转向新教。
III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年）
Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. Shebroke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independentChurch of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practicesbut to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement wasunacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans andto ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfullyplayed off against each other the two great Catholic powers, Franceand Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any majorEuropean conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were nevermaterialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationshipwith France. So England wad able to face the danger fromSpain.
伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复父王独立的英格兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。近30年的时间里，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相厮杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未实现的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。
专八人文知识（8）大英帝国的兴衰
The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)
大英帝国的兴衰
I. Whigs and Tories
辉格党人和托利党人
These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution(1688).
这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。
The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supportedthe right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were toform a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century andbecome the Liberal Party.
辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。
The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and werereluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of theConservative Party.
托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the "open-field"system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lastedfor centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as badresults:
18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的"开放田地"制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：
(1) Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought upthe small;
由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越大的生产单位；
(2) More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce wereconsumed, and diet became more varied;
人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；
(3) Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from theirlands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to lookfor work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularlyto the New World;
圈地对佃农而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。
(4) A new class hostility was introduced into ruralrelationships.
农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。
II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)
工业革命（1780-1830）
1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation ofindustry and the consequent changes in social and economicorganization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19thcenturies.
工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。
2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of thefollowing factors:
英
国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：
(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placedgeographically to participate in European and world trade;
优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；
(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which,after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseastrade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchantsand city bankers. They and those who had done well out of newfarming methods provided capital in large quantities forindustralization.
政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy whichresulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that thepowerful economic interests in the community could exert theirinfluence over Government policy.
1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。
(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too farfrom seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute theirproducts.
英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。
(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport butalso for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineralresources.
英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。
(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.
英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。
(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practicalproblems.
发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。
(8) Probably laissez faire and "Protestant work ethic"helped.
“放手干”及“新教工作道德”很可能也有助力。
(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national marketwas not hindered by internal customs barriers.
1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受制于内部的关税障碍。
(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture madetheir contributions by providing food for the rising population,labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed byindustry.
圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。
3．Typical examples of the inventions during theIndustrial Revolution
工业革命中一些重大创新
(1) John Kay's flying shuttle in 1733;
1733年，约翰凯的飞梭；
(2) James Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny in 1766;
1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮纺纱机；
(3) Richard Arkwright's waterframe in 1769;
1769年理查德阿克赖特的水力纺织机；
(4) Samuel Crompton's mule in 1779;
1779年塞缪尔克朗普顿的走绽纺纱机；
(5) Edmund Cartwright's power loom in 1784;
1784年爱德蒙卡特莱特发明的力织机；
(6) James Watt's steam engine in 1765.
1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽机。
4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution
工业革命的结果
(1) Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of theworld";
英国成为了"世界工场"；
(2) Towns grew rapidly and became the source of thenation's wealth.
城镇迅速兴起，成为国家财富的源泉。
(3) Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of thosewho could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in aappalling conditions.
机械化摧毁了不能投入其中的人们的生活。工人们在可怕的条件下劳动与生活。
(4) The industrial revolution created theindustrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led totrade unionism.
工业革命产生了工人阶级，即无产阶级。后来形成了工会制度。
III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)
宪章运动（1836-1848）
1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.
议会改革的原因
(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.
权力由贵族操纵。
(2) Representation of town and country, and Northand South was unfair.
城镇和农村，北方和南方的代表权极不平等。
(3) There were also various so-called rotten orpocket boroughs.
还有各种称之为衰败或口袋选区的选区。
2．Three Reform Bills
三个改革法案
Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills werepassed.
1832年至1884年间通过了三个改革法案。
a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the "GreaterCharter of 1832) abolished "rotten boroughs", and redistributedparliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It alsogave the vote to many householders and tenant's, based on the valueof their property.
1832年的《改革法案》（也称为1832年的大宪章）废除了"衰败选区"；在新兴城镇中较为公平地重新分配了议席；以财产价值为基础给予许多屋主和佃家。
b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor peopleinto work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survivein their own homes.
1834年的新贫困法强迫穷人进工厂，而没有给他们足够的钱在自己的家里生存。
3．A People's Charter
人民宪章
There was widespread dissatisfaction with theReform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group ofskilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London WorkingMen's Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (aPeople's Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it toParliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males;(2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts;(4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament;(5)payment of members of Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with aGeneral Election every June.
1832年的《改革法案》和《新贫困法》引起了普遍不满。1836年，一群技术工人和小店主组成伦敦工厂联盟。他们于1838年起草了有关政治要求的宪章（人民宪章），想把它呈送给议会。宪章有六点内容：（1）所有成年男子都有选举权；（2）进行无记名投票；（3）平等选区；（4）议员选举废除财产资格要求；（5）议员应有报酬；（6）议会每年六月进行大选。
4．Results of the Chartist Movement
宪章运动的结果。
Chartism failed because of its weak and dividedleadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. Theworking class still immature, without the leadership of a politicalparty armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartistmovement was, however, the first nationwide working class movementand drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achievedvery gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth hasnever been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was "the firstbroad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionarymovement."
由于领导层的软弱和分歧，由于缺少与工会的协调，宪章运动失败了。当时的工人阶级还未成熟，没有正确的革命理论武装的政党领导。但是，宪章运动是第一次全国范围的工人阶级运动，引起了对许多严重问题的关注。在1858至1918年间，六项要求逐渐达到，尽管第六项从未成为现实。列宁说宪章运动是"第一个广泛的、真正群众参与的，有政治组织形式的无产阶级革命运动。"
IV. Trade Unions and the Labour Party
工会和工党
1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the tradeunions and gave financial security.
1871年通过的《工会法》使工会合法化并给其财政保障。
2. The Labor Party had its origin in theIndependent Labor Party(ILP), which was formed in January, 1893. In1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number ofsmall socialist societies set up the Labor Representation Committee(LRC). The LRC changed its name to the Labor Party for the generalelection called for in 1906.
工党起源于独立工党，于1893年1月成立。1900年，工会代表，独立工党和许多小型社会主义社团一起成立了工人代表委员会。1906年的大选迫使工人代表委员会及时更名为工党。
V. Colonial Expansion
殖民扩张
1. The growth of dominions
自治领的兴起
English colonial expansion began with thecolonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain'scontrol of the seas, especially by the rising tide of emigration,British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada,Australia, and New Zealand, in the late 18th and the early 19thcenturies. By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, "on whichthe sun never set". It consisted of a vast number of protectorates,Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions.It included 25% of the world's population and area.
英国殖民扩张开始于1583年纽芬兰的殖民化。在18世纪末、19世纪初，受到海外移民浪潮的鼓舞，英国殖民者很快加他们的扩张到加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰。到1900年英国已建立了"日不落"的大英帝国，包括受保护国、英国殖民地、势力范围和自治领，占世界人口与面积的25%。
Canadawas ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty ofParis. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. TheCanada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where theBritish had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the French. TheBritish North America Act of 1867 established Canada as adominion.
1763年签订的《巴黎条约》将加拿大割让给英国。1774年的《魁北克法》保证了法国的权益。之后，1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分为上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英国人的定居地，后者是法国人的居住点。1867年《英国北美法案》确定加拿大为自治领。
English began to transport convicts to Australia in1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent toAustralia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought morepeople to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing wer unitedin one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.
1788年英国人开始把囚犯流放到澳大利亚。1816年开始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亚。1851年至1892年的淘金热使更多的人拥到澳洲。1901年，六个自治领统一为一个自治领-澳大利亚独立联邦。
New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in1841, achieved self-government in 1857, became a dominion under theBritish crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in1931.
1841年新西兰成为了英国的殖民地，1857年获得自治权，1907年成为自治领，1931年完全独立。
The British East India Company established in 1600.By 1819 the British conquest of most India was almost complete.After the muting of Bengal army in 1857, the control of Indiapassed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress ofIndia in 1877.
1600年英国东印度公司的建立是经济渗透的实例。到1819年英国对印度的征服已基本完成。1857年东印度公司孟加拉军队的当地士兵发动兵变后，1858年印度改由英国君主统治。1877年维多利来女王正式成为印度女皇。
2. The Scramble for Africa
对非洲的掠夺
At the beginning of the 19th century Britishpossessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on thewest coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa wasgradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led theway in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West,Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and theSudan.
19世纪初英国的占领地局限于西海岸的堡垒和奴隶交易点。整个19世纪欧洲人逐渐发现并殖民了非洲内陆。在这场瓜分竞赛中英国占了较大的优势。除了不断扩张的南部和西部殖民地后，英国又凯觎东北的埃及和苏丹。
3. Aggression against China
侵略中国
In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britainand China. Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areasand imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.
1840年英国和中国发动了鸦片战争。从那时起，英国逐渐侵略了中国的许多沿海城市，并签定了许多不平等条约。
VI. Twentieth Century
二十世纪
1. Britain and the First World War
英国和第一次世界大战
The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918primarily between two European Power blocs: "the Central power".Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the "Allies", Britain, France andRussia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the lossof manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economyand society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment ofthe league of Nations.
第一次世界大战是从1914年至1918年，战争主要在两大欧洲集团间进行："同盟国"，包括德国和奥匈帝国，和"协约国"，包括英国、法国和俄罗斯。一战中英国损失惨重。除了劳动力损失，还有巨大的经济与社会瓦解。
2. Britain Between the Two World Wars
两次世界大战之间的英国
The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was enteringthe Great depression.
1929年纽约股票交易所崩溃的影响迅速波及欧洲，到1931年英国进入经济大萧条。
3. Britain and the Second World War
英国与第二次世界大战
As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off theiraggressive momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister,found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longertenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September3,1939.
当阿道夫希特勒及纳粹主义显示他们对欧洲的侵略意图时，首相张伯伦发现他的绥靖政策已站不住脚，只得于1939年9月3日对德宣战。
4. Postwar Britian
战后的英国
(1) One of the most far-reaching consequences ofthe War was that it hastened the end of Britain's empire.
二战最为深远的结果之一是加速了大英帝国的瓦解。
(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned QueenElizabeth II. Many people through television saw theceremony.
1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成为伊莉莎白女王二世。新发明的电视使许多人看到了加冕仪式的过程。
(4) In January 1973, Britain became a full memberof the European Economic Community which was still called theCommon Market in 1973. Britain witnessed the first oil shock in1973.
1973年1月，英国终于成为欧洲经济共同体的正式成员国。1973年仍称为共同市场。1973年英国经历了第一次石油禁运。
(5) Mrs Thatcher
撒切尔主义
Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward byMargaret Thatcher, the first woman prime minister in England in1979. The main contents of her policies included the return toprivate ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetaristpolicies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions thestrengthening of the role of market forces in the economy, and anemphasis on law and order. To some extent her program wassuccessful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in theBritish economy.
1979年撒切尔夫人成为英国第一任女首相。她提出的政策被为"撒切尔主义"。其内容包括国有工业私有化，采用货币主义政策以控制通货膨胀，削弱工会的影响，加强市场因素在经济中的作用，强调法律和秩序。在一定程度上讲，她的计划是成功的。她领导英国经济度过了一段最繁荣的时期之一。
专八人文知识精讲（9）英国经济
I. The Evolution of the British Economy since the War
战后英国经济发展
The evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into threeperiods:
二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段：
(1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British economyin this period is characterized by slow but steady growth, lowunemployment and great material prosperity with rising standards ofconsumption.
（1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。
(2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among thedeveloped countries, Britain maintained the lowest growth rate andthe highest inflation rate, and the high record of tradedeficits.
（2）70年代经济滞胀。在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。
(3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of theeconomic recovery in the 80s was its length, lasting seven years.Another was the improved financial position of the government, withstronger current account of the balance of payments.
（3）80年代经济复苏。一个显著特点是时间长，复苏持续了7年。另一个特点是国际收支大大盈余，政府金融地位最高。
II. Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher's government to improve theeconomy
撒切尔政府的经济复苏政策
Mrs. Thatcher's government took numerous measures to improve theefficiency of the economy during the past decade, using bothmacroeconomic and microeconomic policies.
撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策，采取了许多措施提高经济效益。
(1) Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing downthe rate of inflation and achieving price stability.
宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。
(2) Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the grainof market forces by encouraging enterprise, efficiency andflexibility.
微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业，效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。
III. Reasons for the British coal mining is called a "sick"industry today.
英国煤矿被称为"生病"工业的原因。
Today the coal industry in Britain is on the decline，the numberof miners, collieries and the total output have been falling.
如今The reasons for the decline are as follows: exhaustion of oldmines, costly operations of extraction, poor old equipment, littleinvestment, fall in demand due to imports of cleaner, cheaper andmore efficient fuels, etc.
煤工业衰退的原因包括：老煤矿的枯竭，昂贵的提炼费用，破旧的设备，极少的投资，由于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。
IV. Britain's oil and natural gas
英国的石油和天然气
Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under theNorth Sea. Today Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil butalso has a surplus for export. The transport and domestic heatingsystems mostly depend on oil. So does the food supply, because mostagriculture is highly mechanized. Modern farming requires thingswhich are all oil-based.
在1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足，还有盈余供出口。交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油，因为大部分农业的高度机械化，食品供应也靠石油。
的英国煤矿业衰退，从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。
V. Main problems associated with Britain's iron andsteel industry today.
如今英国钢铁工业的主要问题。
British iron and steel industry is declining forthe following reasons:
英国钢铁工业衰退的原因如下：
1. Local supplies of iron ore have becomeexhausted;
当地贮备枯竭；
2. Old fashioned furnaces for making coke cannotrecover valuable by-products;
生产焦炭的老式炉不能提取有价值的副产品，
3. Blast furnaces, steelworks, and rolling millsare often separated from each other and thus cannot perform as wellas more compact operation;
高炉、钢铁厂和轧钢厂经常分开，导致不如更紧凑的企业出效益；
4. Many steelworks have to be closed down, causingmajor unemployment in an area.
许多钢铁厂倒闭，导致该地区的大批人失业。
VI. Textile Industry
纺织工业
The main textile producing regions of Britain are the EastMidlands, Yorkshire, Humberside, and Northern Ireland.
英国主要纺织基地是现在的中东部，约克郡和汉伯塞德郡及北爱尔兰。
The reasons behind the decline of Britain's textile industryare:
英国纺织业的衰退原因如下：
(1) Exports of textiles have not competed well with those ofother foreign producers who have managed to produce cheapergoods.
纺织品出口不能很好地与设法生产出更便宜商品的国外产家竞争。
(2) There has been a rise in cheaper imports of textiles toBritain from foreign producers.
英国增加了从外国产家进口更廉价纺织品。
(3) Poor and outdated management decisions have causedproblem.
薄弱及过时的管理决策导致许多问题。
(4) Substitutions of human-made fibres have been made fornatural fibres.
人造纤维代替品已取代了天然纤维。
(5) An improvement of output per worker has been achieved, dueto mechanization.
由于机械化，每个工人的生产量有了提高。
VII. New Industries
新兴工业
New industries include microprocessors and computers,biotechnology and other high-tech industries. There are three areasin Britain which have seen some high-tech industrial growth: (1)the area between London and South Wales, (2) the Cambridge area ofEast Anglia and (3) the area between Glasgow and Edinburgh inScotland. The third area is the most spectacular of the three andis now often referred to as the "Silicon Glen". By the end of 1985half of Britain's microchip output was estimated to have come fromScotland.
英国的新兴工业包括微处理器、计算机、生物技术和其他高科技产业。英国的草科技产业主要集中在以下三个地区：（1）伦敦和南威尔士之间的地区，（2）东英吉利的剑桥地区，（3）苏格兰格拉斯哥和爱丁堡之间的地区。其中最后一个地区是最大的，如今有“硅谷”之称。j到1985年底，英国有一半的微芯片都产自苏格兰。
专八人文知识精讲（10）英国政府机构
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head ofstate is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed, in thename of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty's Government. TheSystem of parliamentarygovernment is not based on a writtenconstitution, the British constitution is not set out in anysingledocument. It is made up of statute law, common law andconventions. The Judiciary determines common law andinterpretsstatutes.
联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君王的名义，由国王或女王陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法，英国宪法不由单一文件构成，而由成文法，习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。
I．The Monarchy
君主制
1.Elizabeth II, her title in the United Kingdom is "Elizabeththe Second, by the Grace of God of the UnitedKingdom of GreatBritain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories,Queen, Head of theCommonwealth, Defender of the Faith.
伊莉莎白二世，她的全称是"上帝神佑，大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王，英联邦元首，国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。"
2.The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She ishead of the executive, an integral part of thelegislature, head ofthe judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces andthe "supreme governor"of the Church of England. She gives RoyalAssent to Bills passed by parliament.
女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲，她是行政首脑，立法机构的组成部分，司法首脑，全国武装部队总司令，英国国教"至高无上"的领袖。她任命首相和重要的政府官员。对议会通过的法案给予御准。
3.The monarch actually has no real power. The monarch's powerare limited by law and Parliament. Constitutionalmonarchy beganafter the Glorious Revolution in 1688.
君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始。
II．Parliament
议会
1.The United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state.Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House ofLords and theHouse of Commons.
英国是中央集权国家，而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主，上议院和下议院组成。
2.The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) toprovide, by voting for taxation, the means ofcarrying on the workof government; (3) to examine government Policy andadministrations, including proposalfor expenditure; and (4) todebate the major issues of the day.
议会的主要作用是：（1）通过立法；（2）投票批准税为政府工作提供资金；（3）检查政府政策和行政管理，包括拨款提议；（4）当天的议题辩论。
3.The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and theLords Temporal. The main function of the Houseof Lords is to bringthe wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking.In other words, the non-elected House is to act as a chamber ofrevision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House.
贵族院（上议院）由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法。换而言之，非选举的上议院是修正议院，补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。
4.The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage andconsists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs).It is in the House ofCommons that the ultimate authority.
下议院（平民院）由成人普选产生，由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。
5.Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of theconstituencies returns one member to the House of Commons.A generalElection must be held every five years and is often held at morefrequent intervals.
英国被划分为651个选区，每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次，但经常不到五年就进行一次选举。
6.Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two majorparties. These two parties are the ConservativeParty and the LabourParty. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the LabourParty has held power. Theparty which wins sufficient seats at aGeneral Election to command a majority of Government. The leader ofthemajority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which winsthe second largest number of seats becomes theOfficial Opposition,with its own leader and "shadow cabinet ". The rule of Oppositionis to help theformulation of policy. Criticizes the Government anddebate with the Government.
英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党-保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为"反对党"，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是帮助制定政策，它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。
III.The Cabinet and Ministry
内阁和内阁部长
1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsiblefor the allocation of functions among ministersand informs theQueen at regular meetings of general business of the Government.Cabinet members hold meetingsunder the chairmanship of the PrimeMinister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy onmajorissues.
首相主持内阁，负责分配大臣们的职能，在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在首相的主持下，每周开会几小时，以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。
2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for allCabinet decisions; individual Ministers areresponsible toParliament for the work of their department.
内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责，各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。
IV．The Privy Council
枢密院
1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of executivepower in the state and give private advice tothe King. So the PrivyCouncil was also called the King's Council in history. Today itsrole is largely formal,advising the sovereign to approve certaingovernment decrees.
枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉，给君主提供"私人"建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。今天它的主要作用是礼节性的，如建议君主批准政府的法令。
2. Its membership is about 400, and includes all Cabinetministers, the speaker of the House of Common andsenior British andCommonwealth statement.
它的主要成员有400人左右，包括内阁阁员，下议院院长及英国，英联邦的高级政治家等。
V.Government Department and the Civil Service
政府各部和公务员
1.Commonwealth office, the Ministry of Defense…
主要的政府部门包括：财务部，内务部，外交部，国防部等。
2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services. Theystaff government departments. Civil Servantsare recruited mainly bycompetitive examination. Civil servants do not belong to anypolitical party. Changesof Government do not involve changes indepartmental staff, There are about 541800 civil servants inBritainnow.
文职人员部的成员被称为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任何政党，政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。
VI．Local Government
地方政府部门
1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughoutEngland and Wales: counties and the smallerdistricts. Now, Englandand Wales are divided into 53 counties which are sub-divided into369 districts.
英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制-郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡，郡下分为369个区。
2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs.
大伦敦被分为32个行政区。
专八人文知识精讲（11）英国法律与司法机构
There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A featurecommon to all systems of law in the United Kingdom is that there isno complete code. The sources of law include (1) statutes; (2) alarge amount of "unwritten" or common law; (3) equity law; (4)European Community. Another common feature is the distinction madebetween criminal law and civil law.
联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部完整的法典。法典来源包括：（1）成文法；（2）大量的"不成文法"或习惯法；（3）衡平法；（4）欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。
I．Criminal Proceedings
刑事诉讼程序
1. In England and Wales, once the police have charged a personwith a criminal offence, the crown Prosecution Service assumescontrol of the case reviews the evidence to decide whether toprosecute.
在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立地审核证据以决定是否起诉。
2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count becausethe criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he hasbeen proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt. The prosecution and thedefense get equal treatment. No accused person has to answer thequestion of the police before trial. He is not compelled to giveevidence in count. Every accused person has the right to employ alegal adviser to conduct his defense. If he can not afford to pay,he may be granted aid at public expense. In criminal trial by jury,the judge passes sentence, but the jury decided the issue of guiltor innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If theverdict of the jury can not be unanimous, it must be amajority.
在英国，所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有罪之前，他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等，审判时被告不必回答警察的问题，不许强迫被告提供证据。每位被告都有权雇佣律师为其辩护。如果他不能支付律师费，可以用公用费用提供帮助。在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中，法官判刑，但陪审团决定是否有罪。陪审团一般由12人组成。如果陪审团不能做出一致判决，也必须是多数决定。
3.A verdict of " not guilt" means acquittal for the accused, whocan never again be charged with that specific crime.
"无罪"裁决意味着被告无罪，并且永远不得再以此罪名对其指控。
II. Criminal Courts
刑事法庭
1. Criminal Courts in England and Wales
英格兰和威尔士的刑事法庭
Magistrates' Courts which try summary offences and "either way"offences. A magistrates' court, which is open to the public and themedia, usually consists of three unpaid "lay" magistrates-known asjustices of the peace-who are advised on point of law and procedureby a legally qualified assistant. A Magistrates' court sits withouta jury.
治安（警事）法庭，负责审理判决犯罪，也审理"任意方式"罪行。治安法庭对公众和媒体公开，通常由三位无薪的"外行"地方官--地方治安官组成，由懂得法律知识的书记员和助手给他们提供法律规定和程序方面的建议。治安法庭审察时没有陪审团。
Youth Court which try most cases involving people under18.
青少年法庭，负责审理18岁以下青年的大多数案件。
The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and 'either way"offences referred to it by magistrates. The Crown Court is presidedover by High Court judges, full-time circuit Judges and part-timeRecorders England and Wales are divided into six circuits for thepurpose of hearing criminal case. Each circuit is divided intoareas containing one or more centers of High Court and CrownCourt.
皇家刑事法庭。负责审理最严重的罪行和由地方法官提交的"任意方式"罪行。皇家刑事法庭由高级法院法官，全职巡回法官和兼任刑事法官主持。为审理刑事案，英格兰和威尔士被分为六个巡回区，每个巡回区又分区域，每个区域有一个或多个高级法庭和皇家刑事法庭。
2. Criminal courts in Scotland
苏格兰的刑事法庭
There are three criminal courts in Scotland.（1）the High Court ofJusticiary;(2) the sheriff court;(3) the district court. Scotlandhas two types of criminal procedure, know as solemn procedure andsummary procedure. In solemn procedure, a defendant is tried by ajudge sits without a jury.
苏格兰有三种刑事法院：（1）高级法院；（2）郡法院；（3）区法院。英格兰有两种刑事诉讼：庄重诉讼和即决诉讼。庄重诉讼里，被告由陪审团和法官审理。在即决诉讼中，法官独自审理，不用陪审团。
3. Criminal courts in Northern Ireland
北爱尔兰的刑事法庭
Cases involving minor summary offences are heard by magistrates'courts presided over by a full-time legally qualified residentmagistrate. County courts are primarily civil law courts. The CrownCourt deals with criminal trails on indictment.
涉及轻微即决犯罪的案件由治安法庭听审，法庭由全职的法律合格的常驻治安法官主持。郡法庭主要是民事法庭。皇家刑事法庭根据起诉进行刑事审判。
III．Civil Courts
民事法庭
1. Civil Courts in England and Wales
英格兰和威尔士的民事法庭
Magistrates' Courts have limited civiljurisdiction, The main courts of civil jurisdiction are CountyCourts, the High Court deals with the more complicated civil case.Its jurisdiction covers mainly civil and some criminal cases. Ithas three divisions: (1) the family Division; (2) the ChanceryDivision; (3) the Queen's Bench Division.
治安法庭只有一定的民事审判权。主要行使民事司法权的是民事法院，高等法院处理更为复杂的民事案。主要包括民事案和一些刑事案，高等法院有三个分支：（1）家事庭；（2）大法官庭；（3）王室庭。
2. Civil Courts in Scotland
苏格兰的民事法庭
The Civil Courts are the sheriff court and theCourt of session.
民事法院包括郡法院和巡回法院（最高中心法院）。
3. Civil Courts in Northern Ireland
北爱尔兰的民事法院
County Court are primarily civil law courts. Themagistrates' court also deal with certain limited classes of civilcases. The high Court of Justice the superior civil lawcourt.
郡法院主要是民事法院。治安法庭也审理某些有限类型的民事案件。高等法院就是高级民事法院。
IV. The Judiciary
司法机构
There is no ministry of justice in the UnitedKingdom. Central responsibility lies with the Lord Chancellor theHome Secretary and the Attorney General. In England and Wales, laymagistrates are appointed on behalf of the Crown by the LordChancellor who is advised by committees in each county. The LordChancellor recommends the High Court and circuit judges. Thehighest judicial appointments and made by the Queen on the adviceof the Prime Minister.
英国没有司法机构。中央政府的司法工作主要由大法官、内政大臣和检察总长负责。在英格兰和威尔士，大法官根据各部委员会的建议任命外行人员为治安官。大法官推荐高等法官和巡回法官。最高级别的司法官任命由女王根据首相的建议做出。
V. Police
警察
The police service for United Kingdom is organizedand controlled on a local basis under the Home Secretary and theScottish and Northern Ireland Secretaries. London's MetropolitanPolice Force is directly under the control of Home Secretary.Police officers are not allowed to join a trade union or go onstrike. They do not normally carry firearms.
在内政大臣和苏格兰及北爱尔兰国务大臣的指导下，英国警察分地组建，并以地方管理为基础。但伦敦警察署直接与内政大臣管辖。警察不得加入工会或罢工。他们通常不佩带手枪。
VI. Treatment of offenders
对违法者的处理
The chief aims of the penal system are to deter thepotential lawbreaker and to reform the convicted offender.
刑罚制度的主要目的是阻止潜在的违法者，并改造已判的违法者。
Capital punishment ( a sentence of death ) formurder has been abolished in the U.K, through proposal for itsreinstatement are regularly debated by Parliament, and it remainsthe penalty for treason and piracy.
英国已废除对谋杀罪的死刑，但议会仍经常辩论要恢复死刑，判国罪和海盗罪仍可判死刑。
专八人文知识精讲(12) 英国社会
I. Health and Social Services
全国医疗保健
1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. Thissystem is fundedout of national insurancecontributions and taxation. In Britain theterm appliesmainly to the National Health Service (NHS), nationalinsurance and social security.
英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国，这主要是指国民保健制度，国民保险和社会保障制度。
2. The National Health Service provides for every resident,regardless of income,a full range of medical services. The servicewas established in the U.K. in 1948.Over 82 per cent of the cost ofthe health service in Great Britain id funded out ofgeneraltaxation. The rest is met from: (1) the NHS element of NationalInsurancecontributions; (2) charges towards the cost of certainitems such as drugs prescribedby family doctors, and general dentaltreatment; (3) other receipts, including landsales and the proceedsof income generation schemes.
不管个人收入如何，国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收，其他部分来自（1）国民保险金中的国民保险金部分；（2）象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用；（3）其他收入，包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。
3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS dentaltreatment,including examinations. Sight test are free to children.No one is liable to be chargedby the National Health Service fortreatment in an accident, emergency or for aninfectious disease.Central government is directly responsible for the NHS, whichisadministered by a range of local health authorities and healthboards throughout theU.
国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用，包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免费。国民保健制度对事故，急诊或传染病的治疗不收费，中央政府直接负责国民保健制度，由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施。
4. The family health services are those given to patients bydoctors, dentists,opticians and pharmacists. In order to obtain thebenefits of the NHS a person mustnormally be registered on the listof a general practitioner (GP, sometimes knows asa "familydoctor").
家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务，人们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。
5. A full range of hospital services is provided by districtgeneral hospital. Thereare also specialist hospital or units forchildren, people suffering from mental illness,those with learningdisabilities, and elderly people, and for the treatment ofspecificdiseases.
地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童，精神病人，有学习障碍者，老人和特殊病人开设的专门医院或病区。
6. The National Health Service is the largest single employer oflabour in the U.K.NHS has suffered from underfunding in recentdecades, as a result of which manybetter-off people have beenturning to private medical health care.
国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来，因为资金不足，许多比较富裕的人正逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。
7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly people,disabled people, peoplewith learning disabilities or mentalillness, children, and families facing specialproblems. Thesestatutory service are provided by local government socialservicesauthorities.
在英国，个人社会服务向老人，残疾人，有学习障碍者，精神病人，有特殊家庭困难的人等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。
II. social Security
社会保险
1. The social security system is designed to secure a basicstandard of living forpeople in financial need. Nearly a third ofgovernment expenditure is devoted to thesocial security programmewhich provides financial help for people who are elderly,sick,disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on very lowincomes.
社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平，政府开支的近三分之一用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人，病人，残疾人，失业者，寡妇，抚育幼儿者或低收入者提供经济帮助。
2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separateexecutive agencies ofthe Department of Social Security. In NorthernIreland by the Social Security Agency.
大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理，在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。
3. contributory social security benefits, it include:( 1)retirement pension; (2)unemployment pension; (3) sickness andinvalidity benefit and (4) Maternityallowance and widows'sbenefits.
需要先交费的社会安全福利（个人有工作收入时交，无收入时领），其中包括：退休金，失业金，病残福利金，孕产期补助金，寡妇补助金。
4. non-contributory social security benefits, it include: (1)war pensions;(2)industrial injuries disablement benefit;(3) childbenefit and (4) family credit.
不需要先交费的福利金，包括战争伤亡抚恤金，工伤致残救济金，儿童补助金，低收入家庭补助金。
III. Religion
宗教
1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom without interferencefrom the community or the State. He may change hisreligion at will may manifesthis faith in teaching, worship andobservance. Except that the Lord Chancellor maybe a Roman Catholic,public offices are open without distinction to members ofallchurches or none.
在英国，人人都有信仰宗教的权利，社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰，可以在教职，礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了英国大法官可以是罗马天主教徒外，公共职务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。
2. Established churches
国教
There are two established church in Britain: in England thechurch of England and Scotland the Church of Scotland.
英国有两大国教，在英格兰是英格兰国教，苏格兰是苏格兰教会（长老教）。
3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in thatthe Sovereign mustbe a member of that Church and as "Defender ofthe Faith". The Church is alsolinked with the State through theHouse of loads. The church of England is not freeto change its formof worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer withouttheconsent of Parliament.
英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为"国教的捍卫者"必须是此教会的一员，他在登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意，英格兰教会不可随意改变"国教祈祷书"中规定的礼拜仪式。
4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian,that is,government by ministers and elders, all of whom areordained to office. TheMonarch is normally represented at thegeneral assembly by the Lord HighCommissioner.
苏格兰教的管理是长老制，也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职，王室高级代表通常代表君主光临会议。
5. Unestablished churches
非国教教会
There are include: the Anglican Churches，the Free Churches，theRoman Catholic Church.
主要有圣公会，自由教，罗马天主教。
IV. Festival and Public Holidays
节假日
The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter, andWhit Sunday.
其主要的节日有圣诞节，复活节，圣灵降临节。
专八人文知识精讲(13)：英国体育运动
1. Many international sports were introduced by theBritish whotake their leisure time very seriously. Thereis widespreadparticipation in sport in Britain.
许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的，在英国，人们广泛参与体育。
2. Football ( or "soccer" as it is colloquially called ), themost popular sport inEngland as well as in Europe, has itstraditional home in England where it wasdeveloped in the 19thcentury.
足球（口语叫"soccer"）,在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动，其传统老家在英格兰，出现于19世纪。
3. The game "Rugby" was invented at Rugby School in Warwichshire in the early19th century.
英式橄榄球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校，因此而得名。
4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been inexistence since the16th century. On an international level, 5-dayCornhill Test Matches.
板球，是英国人最典型的体育运动，自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛。
5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the moderngame originated inEngland in late 19th. The main tournament is theannual Wimbledon fortnight, oneof the 4 tennis "Grand Slam"tournaments.
尽管网球已打了好几个世纪，但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一度的温布尔登两周赛，这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。
6. There is a considerable following and participation ofathletics in Britain. Forexample, the London Marathon, which takesplace every spring.
英国参加田径的人很多，例如伦敦的马拉松塞，每年春季举行。
7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been playedsince the 17thcentury and naturally the oldest golf club in theworld is there: The HonourableCompany of Edinburgh Golfers. TheWalker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup forprofessionals.
高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰，自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔夫俱乐部也在那里：爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛，职业球员参加雷德尔杯。
专八人文知识复习题总结1
美国概况
1. The traditional dividing line in America between “east” and“west” is the MississippiRiver.（密西西比河也是美国最长最为重要的河流，被美国人“众河之父”Father of Waters）
2. Non-Hispanic white is the largest racial group in the wholepopulation of U.S. A.
3. Before 2000, the largest minority group in the UnitedStates is African Americans.2000年前美国黑人是美国人数最多的少数民族，2000年后Hispanics/Latinos也就是拉丁裔的美国人成为美国人数最多的少数民族。
4. America has the world's oldest written constitution andpolitical party.
5. As to roles of American president, which is NOT preciselydefined in the U. S. Constitution?
A. Heis the head of the state
B. Heis the chief executive of the U. S.
C. Heis the commander in chief of the armed forces
D. Heis the head of his political party
6. The economic problems caused by the depression in 1929 wereeventually solved by the New Deal. （proposed by F. D.Roosevelt）
7. The New England region's cultural character was shapedlargely by Puritan spirit.
8. California is the largest state in terms of size andpopulation in America.
9. Which of the following is NOT America's newspaper?
A. WallStreet Journal
B. USAtoday
C.Guardian （英国《卫报》）
D. TheMilwaukee Journal
10. ABC, CBS, NBC, PBS, CNN, MTV, HBO等都是美国主要的新闻与有线电视网络（Newsand Cable Networks）
11. To the west of mainland America lies the Pacific Ocean.美国大陆东部则是大西洋。
12. Detroit, a U. S. city bordering Lake Erie, is famous forits automobile industry.
13. New York City is the largest city and the chief port ofthe United States.
14. Washington D. C. is named after both George Washington andChristopher Columbus.
15. The U. S. Congress has the power to make these laws exceptof _______.
A. defense B. citizenship and naturalizationC. marriage D. the regulation of foreigntrade
16. The first American president to be elected from theRepublican Party was Abraham Lincoln.
17. Of the fifty states, the smallest state in area is RhodeIsland.
18. The national flag of the United States is known as theStar-Spangled Banner.
19. The number of the Representatives from each American statedepends on the population.
20. The statue of liberty was given to American people byFrance as a gift in 1884.
21. Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidential term is the longest.（12 years）
22. American Civil War broke out in 1861 and finished in1865.
23. Thomas Jefferson prepared the draft of the Declaration ofIndependence.
24. In 31 October Halloween is celebrated.
25. The US was rated fourth in the world in terms of landarea.
26. The seats in the Senate are allocated to different statesequally. （two for each state）
27. Hollywood, the center of American movie industry, isclosest to Los Angeles.
28. The first Puritans came to America on the ship MayFlower.
英国概况
1. Which of the following does not belong to the Island ofGreat Britain?
A.England B.Scotland C.Ireland D. Wales
2. Modern football game began in England.
3. In Britain education is compulsory for children between theages of 5 to 16.
4. The longest river in Britain is the Severn River.
5. The general election in Britain is held every fiveyears.
6. “God Save the Queen” is the national anthem of Britain.
7. In 1588 the English fleet defeated the Spanish Armada andestablished the supremacy over the sea.
8. Big Ben is a famous clock in London.
9. In 1066 William the Conqueror led the Norman army ininvading and defeating England.
10. The Times is the British oldest daily newspaper.
11. The Industrial Revolution started in the GreatBritain.
12. Margaret Thatcher is the first female Prime Minister inthe history of Great Britain.
13. The capital of Wales is Cardiff.
14. There are two major national parties in Britain: theConservative party and the Labor party.
15. The new agency Reuters（路透社）was founded in London.
16. The Anglo-Saxons were the ancestors of the English and thefounders of England.
17. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland. Edinburgh is thecapital of Scotland.
18. The British Parliament consists of three elements: theCrown, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
